Next Article in Journal
The Establishment of Rapid Propagation System of ‘RED SUN’ Phalaenopsis aphrodite
Previous Article in Journal
Enhancing Firm Value through the Lens of ESG Materiality: Evidence from the Banking Sector in OECD Countries
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Sustainability
Volume 14
Issue 22
10.3390/su142215303
sustainability-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Disentangling Microplastic Pollution on Beach Sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and Characteristics

by
Recca E. Sajorne
1,*,
Genese Divine B. Cayabo
1,
Lea Janine A. Gajardo
1,
Jhonamie A. Mabuhay-Omar
1,
Lota A. Creencia
1 and
Hernando P. Bacosa
2,3,4
1
College of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Western Philippines University, Puerto Princesa 5300, Palawan, Philippines
2
Environmental Science Graduate Program, Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Mathematics, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan 9200, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
3
Center for Sustainable Polymers, Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan 9200, Lanao del Norte, Philippines
4
Main Campus Bataraza Extension (MCBE), Mindanao State University-Main Campus, Marawi 9700, Lanao del Sur, Philippines
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(22), 15303; https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215303
Submission received: 17 October 2022 / Revised: 10 November 2022 / Accepted: 14 November 2022 / Published: 17 November 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Air, Climate Change and Sustainability)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Microplastics (MPs) have become an emerging threat to the marine environment and biota. This study was conducted to determine the occurrence of MPs on the beach sand of Puerto Princesa, Philippines. Microplastics were extracted from the beach sand through the flotation method and preliminarily identified using a stereomicroscope. A total of 47 MPs were extracted from beach sand. Among the 21 sampling sites, the beach sands from 15 sites were contaminated with MPs. The east coast of Puerto Princesa (0.023 particles/g) has significantly higher MP abundance than the west coast (0.006 particles/g). The shapes of MPs were predominantly fiber (79%), and the majority were blue. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis identified polymer types of mainly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP). Overall, 71% of the sampling sites showed the presence of MPs. Future studies should consider the presence and effects of MPs in the food chain, particularly on seafood.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Marine plastic litter is a pressing environmental issue globally [1,2]. As studies on this matter develop, more evidence on the threats of MPs is being discovered, thus requiring more research focus [3]. Microplastics are defined as “tiny ubiquitous plastic particles <5 mm in diameter” [4]. There are numerous sources of MPs in the ocean terrestrial and maritime environments. These MPs enter the marine environment through river routes, coastlines, sea vessels, or wind transport. The origin of MPs can be categorized into two types: primary and secondary. Microplastics of primary source were particles manufactured at that size while secondary source results from the breakdown of microplastic due to fragmentation and degradation [5].
Microplastics are marine pollutants of serious concern as they act as vectors for biological and chemical contaminants to aquatic organisms [6,7] that eventually relate to human health risks [8]. Many marine species mistake these tiny fragments for food but are unable to digest them [9,10,11]. Biomagnification and bioaccumulation of contaminants through ingestion of MPs have already been observed in seabirds and other wildlife [12,13]. As the final consumer, the accumulation of these toxins ultimately ends up in the human body [14]. Although studies on MPs and their interaction with toxins are still in their infancy, biomagnification and bioaccumulation of toxins through the ingestion of MPs have already been documented [12,13]. Although the Philippines is one of the top contributors of plastics in the ocean globally, studies on MPs in the country are still at an early stage [1] and limited [14,15,16,17,18].
Palawan is the largest province in the Philippines in terms of land area and the province with the longest coastline and the most numerous islands. It is known as the last ecological frontier of the Philippines and is proclaimed as the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and Mangrove Swamp Forest Reserve. The province is a critical marine biodiversity hotspot and a breeding ground for threatened and endemic species that are nowhere else to be found in the Philippines [19]. Because of the diverse resources and rich habitats of Palawan, it is considered one of the provinces with a high-value production in agro-fisheries in the country and has the potential to address food security issues [20]. The majority of the local community is engaged in fisheries-related activities [21], and the total value of fish production in the province contributes ~65% of the MIMAROPA region of the Philippines [20]. These valuable fisheries resources can be affected by marine pollution, thus a systematic investigation of the types and levels of pollutants in the province deserves utmost attention. Recently, our baseline study reported how fishing paraphernalia contributes to plastic pollution [22] and continues to threaten the coastal beaches of Palawan, Philippines [23]. However, a comprehensive examination of the MPs in beach sand in the province and their potential effects are still lacking. Therefore, this study was conducted to provide the first characterization and quantification of MPs on beach sand on the island of Palawan. Specifically, this study aimed to determine the abundance and distribution, shape, color, and polymer types of MPs in beach sands on the east and west coasts of Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines.

2. Materials and Methods

Beach sand samples were collected from the beaches of 12 coastal barangays of the east coast and west coast of the city of Puerto Princesa, Palawan (Figure 1). The sand samples were collected from the same sites and the same quadrats where we collected macroplastic litter as reported in our recent study [22]. A barangay or village is the smallest political unit in the Philippines. Eleven coastal barangays on the east coast of the city were sampled including Binduyan (n = 2), Lucbuan (n = 2), San Manuel (n = 1), San Miguel (n= 1), Bancao-Bancao (n = 1), Mangingisda (n = 1) and Inagawan (n = 3). Meanwhile, ten sites on the west coast of the city were sampled including barangays Cabayugan (n = 1), Buenavista (n = 2), Bacungan (n = 2), Simpocan (n = 2) and Napsan (n = 3). Sampling sites were classified as residential (R), and nonresidential (NR) (Table 1). Sand sampling was conducted on 3–6 December 2020.
A transect line measuring 50 m long was delineated in the high tide line parallel to the shoreline. Additionally, three quadrats measuring 4 m × 4 m were also laid in 0–4 m, 23–27 m, and 46–50 m of the transect line [22]. About 5 cm depth of the surface sand was sampled randomly within the quadrat. The sand was sampled during the lowest tide of the day using an improvised pan. All sand samples were placed and contained in aluminum foil to minimize plastic-associated interference [24,25]. Sand samples were stored in an icebox while transported to the laboratory. All sand samples were oven-dried.
After drying, the sand samples were sieved using a 5 mm mesh. Particles greater or equal to 5 mm were disregarded. The sand (<5 mm) passed through the sieve was employed for MP extraction. About 150 g of the sand was used to extract the MPs. To remove the organic materials, 150 mL of 10% KOH solution was added to 150 g of sieved sands and heated in the oven for 40 h at 40 °C [26]. After oven-drying, the 10% KOH solution was removed, and the sands were washed with distilled water and oven-dried at 90 °C for 40 h. The oven-dried samples underwent the floatation method by adding 600 mL of analytical grade NaCl saturated solution (358.9 g/L) and homogenized by mixing for 2 min [17]. All mixtures were allowed to settle for approximately two hours, allowing the MPs to float and sand to settle down. After the settling time, the solution was filtered using a Whatman filter with the aid of a filtration system. This process was performed twice to ensure the complete extraction of MPs [14,27]. The filter paper was washed with distilled water, placed in a clean Petri dish, and oven-dried for 24 h at 40 °C [28].
The filter paper was observed under a stereomicroscope (magnification 40×), and the suspected MPs were subjected to a hot needle test for confirmation. Microplastic was counted grid by grid and characterized as either fiber, fragment, film, or spherules [29]. Out of the collected MPs, 20 samples were randomly selected to undergo attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR) analysis. The randomly chosen MPs were sent to Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology Center for Sustainable Polymers (CSP) for FTIR analysis (Shimadzu IRTracer-100, Kyoto, Japan).
To account for possible laboratory contamination, sand samples that were processed to remove MPs were also included for every observation to serve as a control. Throughout the study, no MP was detected from the filter paper. Meanwhile, 10 MPs measuring 1 mm were also processed throughout the extraction to test the MP extraction’s reliability. After the laboratory process, 10 out of 10 (100%) of the MPs were extracted.
The abundance of MPs reflected in this paper was reported as the number of MP per gram [17]. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether there are differences between east coast residential and non-residential sites and west coast residential and non-residential sites. Where significant difference was found, the means were subjected to post hoc analysis using Tukey’s test. T-test was used to compare the means of the east coast and west coast. Statistical data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS 25. Values were reported as particles/g and considered significantly different at p < 0.05.

3. Results

We investigated the presence of microplastics on the beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan. Among the 21 sampling sites, the beach sand of 15 sites (71%) was found to be contaminated with MPs. On the east coast, eight out of eleven sites (73%) were found to have the presence of MPs, while only seven out of ten sites (70%) were contaminated with MPs on the west coast (Table 1). A total of 47 MPs were extracted from the beach sands of sampling sites. The highest number of MPs were found in the urban barangays of San Manuel (8), San Miguel (6), and Bancao-Bancao (7), which are very close to the city center and are located on the east coast. Meanwhile, the lowest number of MPs were detected on the west coast and are all rural barangays. The abundance of MPs on the east coast ranges from 0 to 0.053 particles/g, while that on the west coast ranges from 0 to 0.013 particle/g. Statistical analysis revealed that the abundance of MPs at residential sites (0.03 particles/g) on the east coast was found to be significantly higher (p < 0.01) than the MPs at non-residential sites (0.01 particles/g) on the west coast (Figure 2A). Meanwhile, there are no significant differences in the abundance of MPs between the residential sites on the east coast, non-residential on the east coast, and residential sites on the west coast (Figure 2A). Overall, the east coast of Puerto Princesa (0.023 particles/g) has significantly higher MP abundance (p <0.01) than the west coast (0.006 particles/g) (Figure 2B).
In terms of the characterization of MPs, there are four shapes of MPs extracted from the beach sand of the different sampling sites—fiber, fragment, film, and filament (Figure 3). The fiber accounted for almost 79% of the extracted MPs in both the east coast and west coast of Puerto Princesa, Palawan, followed by filament (9%), fragment (8%), and film (4%) (Figure 4A).
Conversely, the four shapes of MPs were all present on the east coast, while only three shapes of MPs (fiber, film, and fragment) were found on the west coast (Figure 4A). In terms of color, the majority of the MPs (53%) were blue, followed by transparent (23%), and the others varied by transparent, white, red, green, and yellow. (Figure 4B). Moreover, the east coast has wider variations of color than the west coast (Figure 4B).
Selected MPs were sent for further analysis by FTIR through matching with the spectral database. Polymer types were identified as predominantly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP) (Figure 5).
We sampled the macroplastic reported in our previous work [22] and the microplastics in the current study from the same site. Plotting these values together revealed that the number of macroplastics found in the site [22] and the abundance of MPs extracted in beach sand showed a positive correlation (r = 0.619) (Figure 6). Moreover, there was a highly significant (p < 0.01) relationship between the number of macroplastic litter and MPs.

4. Discussion

In this study, we investigate for the first time the abundance, distribution, and characteristics of microplastic in the beach sands of coastal beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan. This study found a significant relationship between plastic litter and MPs as the MPs extracted in the beach sand on the east coast also have a higher MP abundance than compared to the west coast. Based on our previous study [22], the sandy beaches on the east coast of Puerto Princesa have more plastic litter than those on the west coast. Apart from being a residential area, the majority of the beaches on the east coast also serve as fishing grounds and gleaning areas for the local coastal community [21]. Several numbers of beachgoers were also observed to be doing recreational activities, such as swimming and picnics, within the vicinity and tend to bring consumable products. As a result, these activities may have caused larger waste disposal in the area [30], thus, resulting in the degradation and fragmentation of plastic debris into MPs [31]. This may also explain the moderate positive correlation (r = 0.619) between MPs and plastic litter (Figure 6). With this, most of the MPs were also collected from the residential areas where there was a higher number of plastic litter collected compared to non-residential areas [22]. In comparison to other studies, the MP abundance on the west coast of Puerto Princesa (0.006 particles/g of sand) is considered the lowest MP count extracted in beach sands in the Philippines so far (Table 2). This is expected as the beaches in this part of the province of Palawan have a low clean-coast index (<2) and are categorized as clean based on our recent study [22]. Overall, the MP counts in this study are among the lowest MP counts recorded globally thus far (Table 2).
On the other hand, there was also a variation in terms of the shapes of the microplastics. The coastal beaches on the east of the city of Puerto Princesa were found to have more diverse shapes of microplastic than the west coast. This may also be attributed to different activities conducted in each sampling site and the diverse sources of these plastics [31]. However, the majority of the MP shape extracted in the beach sands of the east and west coast were both fibers. This is believed to be originated from fishing nets and lines which are considered the most common fishing gear used by the local coastal community of the province [32]. Sajorne et al. [22] have also revealed that discarded fishing paraphernalia (nylon) was the dominant plastic litter collected on coastal beaches of the city of Puerto Princesa. This is expected as fishing is considered the major livelihood of the local community [21]. The high number of fibers and fragments also indicates that these are secondary microplastic from large plastic litter through mechanical forces, and other factors [33]. Films are also extracted from the beach sand which is originally from plastic bags and food wrappers [34]. Overall, the shapes of MP found on the beach sands of Puerto Princesa, Palawan are believed to be from defragmented plastic litter in beach areas in Puerto Princesa [22], where films are originally from plastic bags and food wrappers [34] while MP fragments are products of disintegrated plastic fragments [15]. Overall, the result of this study corroborated the other examined beach sand studies in Macajalar Bay, Philippines [15,16] and other countries [30,35,36].
Meanwhile, the most common MP color recorded was blue. It was revealed that blue MPs were one of the colors highly related to fishing lines [37,38], such as ropes and nets. Fishing-related waste can also become a potential source of colorful fibers [39]. Additionally, another significant source of microfibers might be from laundering and washing processes in a residential area [21,30]. The color of MPs is also believed to indicate plastic pollution [36] and anthropogenic origin [40]. Blue-colored MPs were also predominant among the MPs found in mangrove sediment [41] in the Southern Philippines, among MPs detected in water samples from Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines [42], and samples obtained in other countries [40,43].
In addition, the ATR-FTIR analysis confirmed the majority of the microplastics were identified as PET and PP. It can be highly related to fishing paraphernalia such as nets as they are mainly made of PE and PET fiber [44]. The findings of Ding et al. [45] also revealed that there is a consistency in the polymer type where fibrous microplastic was typically PET while small fragments are PE or PP.
The province of Palawan is one of the richest fishing grounds in the Philippines as it supplies high-value production in Agriculture and Fisheries [20]. As an island, its local community is highly dependent on fishing in terms of its consumption and livelihood [21]. As microplastic is detected in the beach sand, it causes vulnerability to the marine ecosystem and the local people [46]. The contamination of MPs that resulted from improper solid waste disposal in the coastal zones has a direct impact on United Nations’ Sustainable Goal (SDG) 6, also known as clean water and sanitation. Pieces of evidence of plastic ingestion by marine animals [47,48] have also been documented particularly the presence of MPs in the gastrointestinal tracts of marine fish [14]. Since the local community of Palawan is highly dependent on marine food fish, this implies that MPs pose a threat to human health and may hinder SDG 3—good health and welfare and SDG 12—responsible consumption and production of the local coastal community. Moreover, MPs have also been found to absorb pollutants such as heavy metals and organic materials from marine environments [49,50].
Furthermore, microplastics occur in various environments, whereas several studies concluded relatively low plastic litter floating on the sea surface [37] and high in marine sediments [51,52]. Though MPs tend to keep afloat, the accumulation of microbes and other organic matter increases their density [29,53] thus settling on the ocean floor [54,55]. Several studies also show significant amounts of MPs on sandy beaches [25,39,56].

5. Conclusions

This study confirmed the presence of MPs in the beach sediment of 71% of the sampling sites in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan. The east coast of the city has a higher MP abundance than the west coast. The MP shapes were mainly fiber, fragment, film, and filament. Based on the ATR-FTIR analysis, the polymers identified were mainly polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and polypropylene (PP).
Furthermore, future studies should focus on the effects of MPs in the food chain, particularly seafood, including fish, shellfish, and seaweeds. Although the abundance of microplastics in Puerto Princesa was among the lowest recorded thus far, considering that microplastics were detected in 71% of the sites, appropriate action must be initiated before it gets worse. Proper strategy, implementation of existing laws, and community participation are needed to address this problem. Local and national government units should intensify solid waste management and educate the public on plastic pollution’s ill effects. Incomparable methods also hinder the comparative analysis between and among each study, which would supposedly strengthen the move for plastic regulation policies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.E.S. and H.P.B.; investigation, R.E.S., G.D.B.C., J.A.M.-O., L.J.A.G. and H.P.B.; formal analysis, R.E.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.E.S.; writing—review and editing, G.D.B.C., L.J.A.G., J.A.M.-O., L.A.C. and H.P.B.; supervision, H.P.B.; funding acquisition; L.A.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This project has received funding from the Global Challenges Research Fund (GCRF), United Kingdom Research and Innovation (UKRI), under grant agreement NE/P021107/1.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge Pejayvhon F. Villeza, Manuel Javarez, Sherley Ann Inocente, Judea Christine Requiron, Shiela Mae Gaboy, Christine Joy Pacilan, and the Blue Communities—Philippines team for their assistance and technical support during data collection. We would also like to acknowledge the Palawan State University—Marine Science Laboratory, headed by Floredel Dangan-Galon, and the Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology-Environmental Science Laboratory for extending laboratory services.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Abreo, N.A.S. Marine plastics in the Philippines: A call for research. Phil. Sci. Letters 2018, 11, 20. [Google Scholar]
  2. Bangun, A.P.; Wahyuningsih, H.; Muhtadi, A. Impacts of macro—And microplastic on macrozoobenthos abundance in intertidal zone. In Proceedings of the IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Malang, Indonesia, 20–21 September 2018; Volume 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Cheang, C.C.; Ma, Y.; Fok, L. Occurrence and composition of microplastics in the seabed sediments of the coral communities in proximity of a metropolitan area. Int. J. Envi. Res. Pub. Health 2018, 15, 2270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  4. Arthur, C.; Baker, J.; Bamford, H. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS-OR&R-30. In Proceedings of the International Research Workshop on the Occurrence, Effects, and Fate of Microplastic Marine Debris, Washington, DC, USA, 9–11 September 2008. [Google Scholar]
  5. GESAMP Sources, fate and effects of microplastics in the marine environment: Part two of a global assessment. In IMO/FAO/UNESCO-IOC/UNIDO/WMO/IAEA/UN/ UNEP/UNDP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine En; Kershaw, P.J.; Rochman, C.M. (Eds.) International Maritime Organization: London, UK, 2016. [Google Scholar]
  6. Caruso, G. Microplastics as vectors of contaminants. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 6, 921–924. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Ng, K.L.; Obbard, J.P. Prevalence of microplastics in Singapore’s coastal marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2006, 52, 761–767. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bevan, R.J.; Harrison, P.; Weeks, J.; Marsden, P.; Coulon, F.; Hassard, F.; Jarvis, P.; Jefferson, B.; Campo, P.; Bevan, A.R.; et al. Exposure of humans to microplastics in the environment and potential risks to health: An overview. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 702, 134455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Bhattacharya, P.; Lin, S.; Turner, J.P. KEPC Physical adsorption of charged plastic nanoparticles affects algal photosynthesis. J. Phys. Chem. C. 2010, 114, 16556–16561. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Tanaka, K.; Takada, H. Microplastic fragments and microbeads in digestive tracts of planktivorous fish from urban coastal waters. Sci. Reports 2016, 6, 34351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Watts, A.J.R.; Lewis, C.; Goodhead, R.M.; Beckett, S.J.; Moger, J.; Tyler, C.R.; Galloway, T.S. Uptake and retention of microplastics by the shore crab carcinus maenas. Envi. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48, 8823–8830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Tanaka, K.; Takada, H.; Yamashita, R.; Mizuka, K.; Fukuwa, M.; Watanuki, Y. Accumulation of plastic-derived chemicals in tissues of seabirds ingesting marine plastics. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2013, 69, 219–222. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Teuten, E.L.; Saquing, J.M.; Knappe, D.R.U.; Barlaz, M.A.; Jonsson, S.; Björn, A.; Rowland, S.J.; Thomson, R.C.; Galloway, T.S.; Tamashita, R.; et al. Transport and release of chemicals from plastics to the environment and to wildlife. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B. 2009, 364, 2027–2045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Bucol, L.A.; Romano, E.F.; Cabcaban, S.M.; Siplon, L.M.D.; Madrid, G.C.; Bucol, A.A.; Polidoro, B. Microplastics in marine sediments and rabbitfish (Siganus fuscescens) from selected coastal areas of Negros Oriental, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 150, 110685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Esquiñas, G.G.M.S.; Mantala, A.P.; Atilano, M.G.; Apugan, R.P.; Galarpe, V.R.K.R. Physical characterization of litter and microplastic along the urban coast of Cagayan de Oro in Macajalar Bay, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 154, 111083. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  16. Kalnasa, M.L.; Lantaca, S.M.O.; Boter, L.C.; Flores, G.J.T.; Galarpe, V.R.K.R. Occurrence of surface sand microplastic and litter in Macajalar Bay, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 149, 110521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  17. Paler, M.K.O.; Malenab, M.C.T.; Maralit, J.R.; Nacorda, H.M. Plastic waste occurrence on a beach off southwestern Luzon, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2019, 141, 416–419. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  18. Galarpe, V.R.K.R.; Jaraula, C.M.B.; Paler, M.K.O. The nexus of macroplastic and microplastic research and plastic regulation policies in the Philippines marine coastal environments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 167, 112343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. [UNESCO] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Palawan Biosphere Reserve, Philippines. Available online: https://en.unesco.org/biosphere/aspac/palawan (accessed on 23 September 2022).
  20. [PSA] Philippines Statistics Authority. Palawan Recorded the Highest Increase in the Value of Production in Agriculture and Fisheries at 1.0 Percent in 2020 (At Constant 2018 Prices). Available online: https://psa.gov.ph/content/palawan-recorded-highest-increase-value-production-agriculture-and-fisheries-10-percent-2020 (accessed on 23 September 2022).
  21. Madarcos, J.R.; Alcantara-Creencia, L.; Roberts, B.; White, M.; Nayoan, J.; Morrissey, K.; Fleming, L. Understanding Local Perceptions of the Drivers/Pressures on the Coastal Marine Environment in Palawan, Philippines. Front. Mar. Sci. 2021, 8, 1122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Sajorne, R.E.; Bacosa, H.P.; Cayabo, G.D.B.; Ardines Jr, L.B.; Sumeldan, J.D.C.; Omar, J.M.; Creencia, L.A. Plastic litter pollution along sandy beaches in Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 169, 112520. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Sajorne, R.E.; Cayabo, G.D.B.; Madarcos, J.R.V.; Madarcos, K.G.; Omar, D.M., Jr.; Ardines, L.B.; Mabuhay-Mar, J.A.; Cheung, V.T.; Creencia, L.A.; Bacosa, H.P. Occurrence of COVID-19 personal protective equipment (PPE) litters along the eastern coast of Palawan Island, Philippines. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2022, 182, 113934. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Claessens, M.; De Meester, S.; Van Landuyt, L.; De Clerck, K.; Janssen, C.R. Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in marine sediments along the Belgian coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62, 2199–2204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Hidalgo-Ruz, V.; Gutow, L.; Thompson, R.C.; Thiel, M. Microplastics in the marine environment: A review of the methods used for identification and quantification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 3060–3075. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Karami, A.; Golieskardi, A.; Choo, C.K.; Larat, V.; Galloway, T.S.; Salamatinia, B. The presence of microplastics in commercial salts from different countries. Sci. Rep. 2017, 7, 46173. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  27. Schwabl, P.; Köppel, S.; Königshofer, P.; Bucsics, T.; Trauner, M.; Reiberger, T.; Liebmann, B. Detection of Various Microplastics in Human Stool. Annals Int. Med. 2019, 171, 453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  28. Vianello, A.; Boldrin, A.; Guerriero, P.; Moschino, V.; Rella, R.; Sturaro, A.; Da Ros, L. Microplastic particles in sediments of Lagoon of Venice, Italy: First observations on occurrence, spatial patterns and identification. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2013, 130, 54–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Van Cauwenberghe, L.; Devriese, L.; Galgani, F.; Robbens, J.; Janssen, C.R. Microplastics in sediments: A review of techniques, occurrence and effects. Mar. Envi. Res. 2015, 111, 5–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Browne, M.A.; Crump, P.; Niven, S.J.; Teuten, E.; Tonkin, A.; Galloway, T.; Thompson, R. Accumulation of Microplastic on Shorelines Worldwide: Sources and Sinks. Envi. Sci. Tech. 2011, 45, 9175–9179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Cole, M.; Lindeque, P.; Halsband, C.; Galloway, T.S. Microplastics as contaminants in the marine environment: A review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62, 2588–2597. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  32. Balisco, R.A.T.; Tahajudjin, C.J.D.; Vigonte, A.C.M. Fishing gears and their common catch in two coastal areas of Palawan, Philippines: Implications to fisheries management. Intl. J. Fish. Aq. Stud. 2019, 7, 216–222. [Google Scholar]
  33. Zhao, S.; Zhu, L.; Li, D. Characterization of small plastic debris on tourism beaches around the South China Sea. Reg. Stud. Mar. Sci. 2015, 1, 55–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Barnes, D.K.A.; Galgani, F.; Thompson, R.C.; Barlaz, M. Accumulation and fragmentation of plastic debris in global environments. Philos. Trans. R. Soc B. 2009, 364, 19851998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  35. Piñon-Colin, T.; Rodriguez-Jimenez, R.; Pastran-Corral, M.A.; Rogel-Hernandez, E.; Wkaida, F.T. Microplastics on sandy beaches of the Baja California Peninsula, Mexico. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 131, 63–71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Zhu, L.; Bai, H.; Chen, B.; Sun, X.; Qu, K.; Xia, B. Microplastic pollution in North Yellow Sea, China: Observations on occurrence, distribution and identification. Sci. Total Environ. 2018, 636, 20–29. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  37. Martí, E.; Martin, C.; Cózar, A.; Duarte, C.M. Low Abundance of Plastic Fragments in the Surface Waters of the Red Sea. Front. Mar. Sci. 2017, 4, 333. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Akkajit, P.; Tipmanee, D.; Cherdsukjai, P.; Suteerasak, T.; Thongnonghin, S. Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in beach sediments along Phuket coastline. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2021, 169, 112496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  39. Bissen, R.; Chawchai, S. Microplastics on beaches along the eastern Gulf of Thailand A preliminary study. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 157, 111345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Stolte, A.; Forster, S.; Gerdts, G.; Schubert, H. Microplastic concentrations in beach sediments along the German Baltic coast. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 99, 216–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Navarro, C.K.P.; Arcadio, C.G.L.A.; Similatan, K.M.; Inocente, S.A.T.; Banda, M.H.T.; Capangpangan, R.Y.; Torres, A.G.; Bacosa, H.P. Unraveling Microplastic Pollution in Mangrove Sediments of Butuan Bay, Philippines. Sustainability 2022, 14, 14469. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Arcadio, C.G.L.A.; Navarro, C.K.P.; Similatan, K.M.; Inocenter, S.A.T.; Ancla, S.M.B.; Banda, M.H.T.; Capangpangan, R.Y.; Bacosa, H.P.B. Microplastics in surface water of Laguna de Bay: First documented evidence on the largest lake in the Philippines. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022. revised. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Graca, B.; Szewc, K.; Zakrzewska, D.; Dolega, A.; Szczerbowska-Boruchowska, M. Sources and fate of microplastics in marine and beach sediments of the Southern Baltic Sea-a preliminary study. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2017, 24, 7650–7661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. Qiu, Q.; Peng, J.; Yu, X.; Chen, F.; Wang, J.; Dong, F. Occurrence of microplastics in the coastal marine environment: First observation on sediment of China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 98, 274e280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Ding, J.; Li, J.; Sun, C.; Jiang, F.; Ju, P.; Qu, L.; Zheng, Y.; He, C. Detection of microplastics in local marine organisms based on multi-technology. Anal. Methods 2019, 11, 78–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Fischer, E.K.; Paglialonga, L.; Czech, E.; Tarnminga, M. Microplastic pollution in lakes and lake shoreline sediments- a case study of Lake Bolsena and lake Chiusi (Central Italy). Environ Pollut. 2016, 213, 648–657. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Abreo, N.A.S.; Macusi, E.D.; Blatchley, D.D.; Cuenca, G.C. Ingestion of marine plastic debris by green turtle (Chelonia mydas) in Davao Gulf, Mindanao. Philippines. Philipp. J. Sci. 2016, 145, 17–23. [Google Scholar]
  48. Abreo, N.A.S.; Macusi, E.D.; Blatchey, D.; Cuenca, G. First Evidence of Plastic Ingestion by the Rare Deraniyagala’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon hotaula). IAMURE Int. J. Ecol. Conserv. 2016, 19, 16–36. [Google Scholar]
  49. Zhang, W.; Ma, X.; Zhang, Z.; Wang, Y.; Wang, J.; Wang, J.; Ma, D. Persistent organic pollutants carried on plastic resin pellets from two beaches in China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 99, 28–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Brennecke, D.; Duarte, B.; Paiva, F.; Caçador, I.; Canning-Clode, J. Microplastics as vector for heavy metal contamination from the marine environment. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2016, 178, 189–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Cózar, A.; Echevarría, F.; González-Gordillo, J.I.; Irigoien, X.; Úbeda, B.; Hernández-León, S.; Palma, Á.T.; Navarro, S.; García-de-Lomas, J.; Ruiz, A.; et al. Plastic debris in the open ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2014, 111, 10239–10244. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Peeken, I.; Primpke, S.; Beyer, B.; Gütermann, J.; Katlein, C.; Krumpen, T.; Bergmann, M.; Hehemann, L.; Gerdts, G. Arctic sea ice is an important temporal sink and means of transport for microplastic. Nat. Comm. 2018, 9, 1505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Michels, J.; Stippkugel, A.; Lenz, M.; Wirtz, K.; Engel, A. Rapid aggregation of biofilm-covered microplastics with marine biogenic particles. Proc. R. Soc. B Bio. Sci. 2018, 285, 20181203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  54. Andrady, A.L. Microplastics in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2011, 62, 1596–1605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Thompson, R.C.; Olsen, Y.; Mitchell, R.P.; Davis, A.; Rowland, S.J.; John, A.W.G.; McGonigle, D.; Russel, A.E. Lost at Sea: Where Is All the Plastic? Science 2004, 304, 354–364. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Fok, L.; Cheung, P.K. Hong Kong at the Pearl River Estuary: A hotspot of microplastic pollution. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2015, 99, 112–118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Lo, H.S.; Xu, X.; Wong, C.Y.; Cheung, S.G. Comparisons of microplastic pollution between mudflats and sandy beaches in Hong Kong. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 236, 208–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Yu, X.; Peng, J.; Wang, J.; Wang, K.; Bao, S. Occurrence of microplastics in the beach sand of the Chinese inner sea: The Bohai Sea. Environ. Pollut. 2016, 214, 722–730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. Li, J.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, K.; Yang, R.; Li, R.; Li, Y. Characterization, source, and retention of microplastic in sandy beaches and mangrove wetlands of the Qinzhou Bay, China. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 136, 401–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  60. Doyen, P.; Hermabessiere, L.; Dehaut, A.; Himber, C.; Decodts, M.; Degraeve, T.; Delord, L.; Gaboriaud, M.; Sacco, J.; Tavernier, E.; et al. Occurrence and identification of microplastics in beach sediments from Hauts-de-France region. Envi. Sci. Poll. Res. 2019, 26, 28010–28021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Wang, Y.; Zou, X.; Peng, C.; Qiao, S.; Teng, W.; Wenwen, Y.; Khokiattiwong, S.; Kornkanitnan, N. Occurrence and distribution of microplastics in surface sediments from the Gulf of Thailand. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2020, 152, 110916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Prarat, P.; Thanayotmethi, T.; Sriboonyapirat, T.; Donsomchit, P.; Hongsawat, P.; Chouychai, B. Preliminary study of abundance and characteristics of microplastics on beach sediment along the coast of Rayong Province, Thailand. In Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Future Environment and Energy, Kyoto, Japan, 7–9 January 2020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Hengstmann, E.; Tamminga, M.; Vom Bruch, C.; Fischer, E.K. Microplastic in beach sediments of the Isle of Rugen (Baltic Sea)—Implementing a novel glass elutriation column. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2018, 126, 263–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Mathalon, A.; Hill, P. Microplastic fibers in the intertidal ecosystem surrounding Halifax harbor, Nova Scotia. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2014, 81, 69–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Sustainability 14 15303 g001 550
Figure 1. Map of Puerto Princesa in Palawan Island, Philippines showing the sampling sites for microplastics sampling on the east coast (circle) and west coast (triangle). E—east coast; W—west coast. Adapted from Sajorne et al. [19] with minor modification.
Figure 1. Map of Puerto Princesa in Palawan Island, Philippines showing the sampling sites for microplastics sampling on the east coast (circle) and west coast (triangle). E—east coast; W—west coast. Adapted from Sajorne et al. [19] with minor modification.
Sustainability 14 15303 g001
Sustainability 14 15303 g002 550
Figure 2. Number of microplastic (per g) found in beach sediments of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: (A) number of microplastic (per g) of residential and non-residential sites; (B) number of microplastic (per g) in the east coast, west coast, and the entire city of Puerto Princesa. Error bars are ±1 standard deviation from the mean. Different letters indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Number of microplastic (per g) found in beach sediments of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: (A) number of microplastic (per g) of residential and non-residential sites; (B) number of microplastic (per g) in the east coast, west coast, and the entire city of Puerto Princesa. Error bars are ±1 standard deviation from the mean. Different letters indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05).
Sustainability 14 15303 g002
Sustainability 14 15303 g003 550
Figure 3. Microplastics found in beach sediments of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island: (a) filament, E2; (b) fiber, E5; (c) fiber, E6; (d) fiber, W4; (e) fragment, E6; (f) fragment, E7; (g) film, E9; (h) fiber, W7. Bar line: (a,b,h): 100 µm; (c): 1 mm; (d,f,g): 200 µm; (e): 500 µm.
Figure 3. Microplastics found in beach sediments of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island: (a) filament, E2; (b) fiber, E5; (c) fiber, E6; (d) fiber, W4; (e) fragment, E6; (f) fragment, E7; (g) film, E9; (h) fiber, W7. Bar line: (a,b,h): 100 µm; (c): 1 mm; (d,f,g): 200 µm; (e): 500 µm.
Sustainability 14 15303 g003
Sustainability 14 15303 g004 550
Figure 4. Characterization of microplastic: (A) shapes of microplastic; (B) colors of microplastic.
Figure 4. Characterization of microplastic: (A) shapes of microplastic; (B) colors of microplastic.
Sustainability 14 15303 g004
Sustainability 14 15303 g005 550
Figure 5. Classification of microplastic: (A) polyethylene; (B–D) polypropylene.
Figure 5. Classification of microplastic: (A) polyethylene; (B–D) polypropylene.
Sustainability 14 15303 g005
Sustainability 14 15303 g006 550
Figure 6. Correlation of plastic litter and microplastic found on beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan.
Figure 6. Correlation of plastic litter and microplastic found on beaches of Puerto Princesa, Palawan.
Sustainability 14 15303 g006
Table
Table 1. Description of the sampling sites and microplastic sampled from beach sands in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. E—east coast; W—west coast. (Adapted from Sajorne et al. [22] with minor modification).
Table 1. Description of the sampling sites and microplastic sampled from beach sands in Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines. E—east coast; W—west coast. (Adapted from Sajorne et al. [22] with minor modification).
Station CodeSampling SiteLatitudeLongitudeClassificationNumber of MPs MP Count (Particle/g)
E1Binduyan10°1′5.22″ N119°4′37.02″ EResidential30.020
E2Binduyan10°0′15.06″ N119°1′48.54″ ENon-residential30.020
E3Lucbuan9°59′4.44″ N118°57′6.9″ EResidential00.000
E4Lucbuan9°58′51.6″ N118°53′8.16″ ENon-residential30.020
E5San Manuel9°45′3.24″ N118°46′20.34″ EResidential60.040
E6San Miguel9°45′3.24″ N118°46′20.34″ EResidential80.053
E7Bancao-Bancao9°45′3.54″ N118°46′20.52″ EResidential70.047
E8Mangingisda9°39′37.56″ N118°44′24.9″ ENon-residential00.000
E9Inagawan9°36′24.36″ N118°42′5.7″ EResidential60.040
E10Inagawan9°34′17.94″ N118°40′49.98″ ENon-residential00.000
E11Inagawan9°32′39.9″ N118°39′12.54″ EResidential20.013
W1Cabayugan10°11′51.78″ N118°54′10.08″ ENon-residential10.007
W2Buenavista10°4′32.28″ N118°49′5.58″ EResidential20.013
W3Buenavista10°4′23.82″ N118°48′23.82″ EResidential10.007
W4Bacungan9°52′26.94″ N118°36′28.5″ ENon-residential10.007
W5Bacungan9°52′26.76″ N118°36′28.5″ ENon-residential10.007
W6Simpocan9°48′12.66″ N118°32′26.88″ ENon-residential00.000
W7Simpocan9°45′32.94″ N118°30′34.14″ EResidential10.007
W8Napsan9°43′50.94″ N118°28′18.66″ ENon-residential00.000
W9Napsan9°43′40.56″ N118°27′0.66″ EResidential20.013
W10Napsan9°43′36.12″ N118°27′1.28″ ENon-residential00.000
Table
Table 2. Comparison of MP counts (particle/g) in beach sediments in the Philippines and other countries.
Table 2. Comparison of MP counts (particle/g) in beach sediments in the Philippines and other countries.
City/CountryMean Count of MPs (Particle/g)Reference
East coast of Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines0.023This study
West coast of Puerto Princesa, Palawan, Philippines0.006This study
Lian, Batangas, Philippines0.260[17]
Negros Oriental, Philippines0.082[14]
Philippines0.025[30]
Hong Kong 0.168[57]
Hong Kong0.189[3]
Bohai Sea, China0.103–0.163[58]
China0.015–12.852[59]
Beibu Gulf, China6.87[44]
Mexico0.135[35]
Hauts-de-France, France0.0234–0.0693[60]
Phuket, Thailand1.883[38]
Thailand0.42–200[39]
Thailand0.15[61]
Rayong, Thailand0.568[62]
Singapore0.00032[7]
Isle of Rügen, Germany0.093[63]
Halifax Harbor, California4.5[64]
Belgian Coast, Belgium0.134[24]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Sajorne, R.E.; Cayabo, G.D.B.; Gajardo, L.J.A.; Mabuhay-Omar, J.A.; Creencia, L.A.; Bacosa, H.P. Disentangling Microplastic Pollution on Beach Sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and Characteristics. Sustainability 2022, 14, 15303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215303

AMA Style

Sajorne RE, Cayabo GDB, Gajardo LJA, Mabuhay-Omar JA, Creencia LA, Bacosa HP. Disentangling Microplastic Pollution on Beach Sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and Characteristics. Sustainability. 2022; 14(22):15303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215303

Chicago/Turabian Style

Sajorne, Recca E., Genese Divine B. Cayabo, Lea Janine A. Gajardo, Jhonamie A. Mabuhay-Omar, Lota A. Creencia, and Hernando P. Bacosa. 2022. "Disentangling Microplastic Pollution on Beach Sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and Characteristics" Sustainability 14, no. 22: 15303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215303

APA Style

Sajorne, R. E., Cayabo, G. D. B., Gajardo, L. J. A., Mabuhay-Omar, J. A., Creencia, L. A., & Bacosa, H. P. (2022). Disentangling Microplastic Pollution on Beach Sand of Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island, Philippines: Abundance and Characteristics. Sustainability, 14(22), 15303. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142215303

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop