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Article

Reuse of Barley Straw for Handmade Paper Production

by
Alma Delia Román-Gutiérrez
1,
Danae Duana-Ávila
2,
Juan Hernández-Ávila
3,*,
Eduardo Cerecedo-Saenz
3,
Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez
3,
Adriana Rojas-León
4 and
Patricia López Perea
5,*
1
Academic Area of Chemistry, Institute of Basic Sciences and Engineering, Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Highway Pachuca—Tulancingo Km 4.5, Mineral de la Reforma, Pachuca de Soto 42184, Hidalgo, Mexico
2
Institute of Administrative and Economic Sciences, Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Circuito La Concepción Km 2.5, Col. San Juan Tilcuautla, San Agustín Tlaxiaca 42160, Hidalgo, Mexico
3
Academic Area of Earth Sciences and Materials, Institute of Basic Sciences and Engineering, Autonomous University of Hidalgo State, Highway Pachuca—Tulancingo Km 4.5, Mineral de la Reforma, Pachuca de Soto 42184, Hidalgo, Mexico
4
Research Direction, Universidad La Salle México, Benjamin Franklin 47, Col. Hipodromo Condensa, Mexico City 06140, Mexico City, Mexico
5
Area de Ingeniería Agroindustrial, Universidad Politécnica de Francisco I. Madero, Domicilio Conocido s/n Tepatepec, Mpio. Francisco I. Madero, Tepatepec 42660, Hidalgo, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2022, 14(19), 12691; https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912691
Submission received: 17 August 2022 / Revised: 29 September 2022 / Accepted: 30 September 2022 / Published: 6 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Pollution Prevention, Mitigation and Sustainability)
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Abstract

:
The main objective of this work is supporting the use of sustainable solutions for the management and reuse of agricultural waste from the cereal harvest, such as oats, barley, and triticale, making sheets of artisan paper, innovating the process with the use of different proportions of cellulose obtained from straw residues. The physical and mechanical properties of the obtained sheets showed that basis weight (66–96 g/m2), thickness (19–300 μm), burst strength (68.9–103.4 kPa), burst index (0.81–1.35 kPam2/g) and bulk (2.52–3.12 cm3/g), were adequate. Based on what can be observed in the SEM images, it is possible to infer that straw has the function of supporting the sheets using combinations of barley straw and recycled paper. The result of the IR analysis indicated that the sheet with an increase in hydroxyl groups was that obtained with barley straw. Therefore, the treatment was efficient. These results were corroborated by X-ray diffraction analysis, in which the percentage of crystallinity of the barley straw paper was 37.1%. Finally, the results obtained indicated that the crystallinity is better in the sheets containing large amounts of barley straw. The sheet with the highest percentage of crystallinity was that which was made using 100% of barley straw, showing a 37.1 percentage of crystallinity, followed by the sheet made of 100% recycled paper, having a value of 34.4%.

1. Introduction

The FAO’s last report, published in 2019, mentions that in the world there was a production of 2.614 million tons of cereals, such as rice, oats, barley, corn, wheat and triticale [1]. This has resulted in a high generation of agricultural residues from these crops, such as the husk that protects the grain and straw. Some of these wastes have been used as an alternative raw material to wood in various processes, due to their lignocellulosic content, thus achieving favorable results, as well as giving added value to these type of materials by incorporating them into industrial processes and reducing the problem of its final disposition [2].
Meanwhile, non-wood raw materials account for 5–7% of the total pulp and paper production worldwide and the production of pulp from non-wood resources has many advantages such as easy pulping capability, excellent fibers for the special types of paper and high-quality bleached pulp [3]. However, only small percentages of such residues are being used for papermaking or panel processing; most of them are either left behind or burned by farmers on the spot. This not only occupies precious land, but also destroys the local ecological environment [4]. Nowadays, society has become familiar with the use of products that are more environmentally friendly, and has even come to prefer them over normal products, though they pay more for the eco-label [5]. In addition, environmental regulations are becoming stricter, making companies produce more sustainable products [6], the so-called “eco-materials”. These can be classified into four types: materials with less hazardous substances, materials of higher recyclability, materials of higher resource productivity and materials with Green Environmental Profile, among which are materials from renewable resources and from waste [7].
On the other hand, technological progress does not go hand in hand with the consumption of craft paper, whose consumption is increasing [8]. Today, a great deal of information can be digitized, but the use of paper is still essential for textiles, packing and art activities [9]. That is why the felling of forests is increasing, and some figures show that from 2000 to 2012, the planet lost 2.3 million km2 of forest [8]. For this reason, it is extremely important to seek other sources to obtain alternative raw materials for paper industry.
In the meantime, pulp and paper manufacturing has become an intrinsic section of industrial production around the globe. With the increase in population, the demand and consumption of paper has marked up tremendously [10]. The demand for pulp, paper and paperboard is about 402 million tons per annum worldwide [11]. The demand for paper can be projected to about 521 million tons per annum by 2021 [12]. During the years 1999–2005, consumption of paper increased from 316 to 351 million tons, and it is expected to increase to up to 500 million tons (Mt) by the year 2025. This means a growth of 1.6% in a year [13,14].
The aforementioned issues lead to the destruction of our natural forest cover. The confined production of forest based raw materials, with the increased demand for pulp and paper production and the awareness of environmental protection, have forced industries to work on alternate raw material [15,16]. This has opened a way for agro residues, to be used as raw material in pulp and paper industry for cleaner production [17,18].
Likewise, the quality of the paper depends on whether it has the necessary properties for its intended use. So, this will depend fundamentally on the raw materials used, the type of fibers, the crystallinity, and the processes to which they are subjected to in their suitability for the production of paper. There are studies where materials considered waste from cereals, in particular from the rice harvest, have been used for the production of pulp and paper, obtaining good results in terms of yield. This is mainly due to the low lignin content since it facilitates the delignification and open structures, promoting the reaction with the chemicals used during cooking [19].
For the reasons mentioned above, the main objective of this work is to support the use of sustainable solutions for the management and reuse of agricultural residues from the cereal harvest, such as oats, barley, and triticale, making sheets of artisan paper, innovating the process with the use of different proportions of cellulose obtained from these wastes. This research will also look into barley straw, recycled paper sheets, and the evaluation of their quality by implementing different methods. This work also aims to determine the industrial viability for the elaboration of artisan paper with these materials because their use could present various advantages such as the existing abundance of the materials, which are easy to collect and cheaper. Moreover, they do not have a more profitable easy use, they have a low cost of storage, long-lasting preservation and above all, they are very economical materials.

2. Materials and Methods

For the execution of this research work, samples of oat straw, barley, and triticale were used, which were produced and collected in Apan city, Hidalgo state, Mexico country (see Figure 1).

2.1. Raw Material Conditioning

The straw sampling was of the simple random type, in which the units were chosen individually and directly through a random process by method 992.01 [20]. The granulometric analysis was carried out by dry sieve (under atmospheric conditions). Prior to the sieving, a pretreatment was executed, which consisted of a reduction in the size of the straw (Figure 1b,c). Later, the analysis was achieved with standard sieves (Tyler MR series), No. 14, 18, 30, 40, and 50. Then, a 20 g sample was sieved, and the obtained fractions were weighed (Figure 1d).

2.2. Proximal Chemical Analysis

The analysis for the straw was determined according to the method and equipment of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists [20]. Total nitrogen (Leco/FP-528, ALT, East Lyme, CT, USA, Dumas method No. 968.06) was used. Crude protein (CP) was obtained by multiplying the total N content by 6.25. Ash (923.02), Fat by the ether extract (Leco/TFE-2000, direct method 920.06), Dry matter content (925.10). See Figure 2.
Bursting strength is defined as the maximum hydrostatic pressure required to produce rupture of the material when a controlled and constantly increasing pressure is applied through a rubber diaphragm to a circular area, 30.5 mm (1.20 in.) diameter. This test is known familiarly as “Mullen”. Bursting strength is a very important aspect of quality and strength of many materials that are used in different industries. In many industries, where there is use of materials that are prone to rupture, it is very important to calculate and to control the bursting strength. The industries where such materials are used include paper industries, packaging industries, textile industries and so forth. The paper, cardboards, corrugated sheets and fabrics can be easily ruptured when there is a bursting force applied on them. The bursting index formula is expressed in the units of kPa. By calculating the Burst index according to the TAPPI [21] standard (403 om-97), this can easily give important information about the quality as well as the strength of the materials such as paper, cardboard, corrugated sheets and textile fabrics. The more the value factor and bursting Index of the materials, the better will be the quality of the materials.

2.3. Lignocellulosic Composition of Straw

The chemical characterization of barley straw was determined according to the following Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry [21] standards for the different components, namely: T-222 om-88 for lignin, T203 om-93 for α-β-γ-cellulose, T-9m-54 for holocellulose. Hemicellulose content was estimated as the difference between holocellulose and α-cellulose contents.

2.4. Preparation and Evaluation of Handmade Paper Sheets Cooking Process, (Thermal-Alkaline)

The process was carried out according to the methodology of Al Arni et al., [22]. The residues (100 g) were suspended in 200 mL of NaOH 2.0 M and placed in an autoclave at 394 K during 60 min. Then, they were filtered and washed with water until it reached a neutral state at pH 7. Once the cellulose was obtained, it was ground in an Osterizer blender using the fifth speed for 6 min, to obtain the cellulose pulp. See Figure 3A–D.
The craft paper sheets were made with cellulose pulp obtained from straw and recycled paper, with the proportions shown in Table 1.
Once the cellulose pulp was obtained from both barley straw and recycled paper, a volume of 60 mL of pulp was taken for each mixture and added to a wooden sieve, which was immersed in water. Subsequently, the pulp was stirred to homogenize it throughout the area, and the sieve was removed to drain the water.
After transferring the sheet into the sieve, it was shaken while the sieve was turned upside down and with the help of a wooden shovel the material was taken out. The excess of water was removed, and the bolt removed from the strainer. Then, a second bolt cap was immediately fitted.
When there were 10 sheets, these were placed in a 10 kg press 30 min. Once the sheets were pressed, they were flattened with the help of a wooden roller in order to erase the marks resulting from the sieve mesh. Then, they were allowed to air dry during 12 h under normal atmospheric conditions of T and RH, and at the end of this time, the pellet was removed.
Finally, the bursting factor is expressed in terms of the bursting strength per unit grammage force applied on the surface of the material. In order to use the bursting factor formula of the materials, first it is essential to calculate the bursting strength of the material being tested which can easily be carried out by performing the Mullen test or Bursting Strength Test using the bursting strength tester. Once the bursting strength of the material is calculated, the bursting index formula is used and the bursting factor of the material can be calculated.

2.5. Characterization of Paper Sheets

The physical properties of the produced paper were obtained, using the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry standards [21]. The determination of grammage or base weight of the paper was achieved based on the [410 om-08]. For thickness, the standard was [410 om-18] and for burst strength [403 om-97] was used.

2.6. Paper Sheet Properties by Instrumental Analysis

For the characterization of the different craft papers produced, the following instrumental analysis techniques were used: X-ray diffraction, which was carried out in an Inel Diffractometer, model 2000 located at the Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo (UAEH), Mexico. The MATCH database was used to index the spectra obtained in this analysis. It was necessary to prepare the sample to 33 µm mesh. See Figure 4a–b.
The morphology of the samples was obtained with the help of a scanning electron microscope (SEM), model JEOL JMS 6300 (located in the UAEH) with a voltage of 30 kV and equipped with an Energy Dispersive X-ray Detector Spectrometer (EDS). The samples were dried in an oven (Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) at a temperature of 318 K ± 2 K for 3 days. To analyze the surface morphology of the handsets for this study, samples were also covered with a thin layer of gold to improve image acquisition during SEM analysis. EDS is used for elemental analysis or chemical characterization of a sample. To stimulate the characteristic X-rays of a sample, a beam of high-energy charged particles, such as electrons or protons (see ERD), or an X-ray beam, is focused on the sample. The incident beam can excite an electron in a shell internal, expelling it from the shell and creating an electron hole. An electron from an outer shell can fill this gap by emitting X-rays. The number and energy of X-rays emitted by a sample can be measured with an energy dispersive spectrometer to determine the elemental composition of the sample.
On the other hand, Fourier-Transform Infra-Red Spectrophotometry (FTIR) was performed with a Perkin Elmer (Waltham, MA, USA) Flouries equipment (located at the UAEH).

3. Results and Discussion

The results of the granulometric analysis are shown in Figure 2, where the average of the replications made can be observed. The 3 samples have a similar size distribution since all show a greater retention in a size of 600 µm with 26%, between 5–8% for a size of 1400 µm, 15% for 1000 µm, 25% for 600 µm, 15–18% for 300 µm and the fineness with an approximate value of 30%.
According to the results obtained, the straw that showed a particle size of 600 µm was taken to perform the chemical analysis and this sieve showed greater retention.
Bouasker et al. [23] reported that the particle sizes showed the curve of the size of the plane particle, which indicated that the range (5–20 mm) is the most abundant in the grounded barley straw. Likewise, Canales et al. [24] observed that the curve of distribution of the sizes of the particles for the barley husk showed a bimodal behavior, obtaining values from 390.9 μm (most abundant) to 610.7 μm (less abundant).

3.1. Proximal Chemical Analysis

The results of humidity, protein, holocellulose, lignin and ash for the samples and references (other research) are shown in Table 2. With reference to humidity, oat straw showed the highest value with 11.9%, followed by triticale straw with 9.1% and finally barley straw with 8.1% of moisture. Table 2 shows the results from other authors, where the values range from 5.35% to 9.10% [25,26,27]. Therefore, the moisture content showed by samples were favorable, because the ranges obtained in this investigation for the raw material are within the specifications for the manufacture of paper.
The protein content in Table 2 shows the average of the replications made for oat straw, barley and triticale. It can be noted that the three types of straw have a similar protein percentage, which ranged between 8–11%. Barley straw is the sample that showed the highest percentage of protein with 10.3%, followed by triticale straw having 8.9% protein, and finally oat straw with 8.9% protein. According to the references, the values found range from 1.30% to 7.72% for straw [25,26,27]. The protein content in the samples is a good factor, because this type of compound will not affect the production of paper, since these are eliminated during the process of obtaining cellulose and paper.
On the other hand, the holocellulose content is the largest constituent of the straw of these cereals, since this represents the total of carbohydrates, cellulose and hemicelluloses contained in a lignocellulosic material. Table 2 also shows the percentage of holocellulose for the analyzed samples, in which it was observed that triticale straw has the highest percentage of holocellulose with 73.4%, followed by oat straw with 71.5% and finally the barley straw having 70%.
As it can be seen, the results obtained in this analysis are very promising since all the samples had a percentage higher than 70%. The sample that obtained the highest percentage of holocellulose was the triticale straw with 73%, which is very close to that reported by Vargas et al. [28] for barley straw, which is of 73.8%. Table 2 shows the results of other authors, where the values range from 56.3% to 80.1% by holocellulose [25,26,28,29,30,31]. This data is of great importance as the results are close to those found in some woods, these being the main raw material in the production of paper, which gives us an idea of the possible cellulose yield that will be obtained. The holocellulose content in the samples is favorable because its main function is the interaction with cellulose and lignin. Hemicellulose chains associate with cellulose microfibrils according to their polar character (hydrogen bonds), and this results in viscoelastic behavior, which is important to provide good properties such as the degree of swelling, flexibility, rigidity, hardness, etc., during the papermaking process.
The results of the ash content are shown in Table 2, where it can be observed that the barley straw showed a percentage of 5.7%, followed by the triticale straw with 4.8% and oat straw of 4.5%. According to the references, the values range from 0.49% to 15.2% for straw [25,26,27,28,29,30,31]. Based on the data obtained, the ash content is lower than 6% in all the samples, which is of importance because in this type of compound, the content must range between 1–10% and this value is within the range. Nevertheless, the values in this type of samples may vary due to some factors such as: the type of irrigation either with drinking water or with contaminated water, the application of pesticides, the type of soil, the region, and the climate.
Lignin is a biopolymer, and its structural function is the agglomeration of cellulose fibers, providing rigidity to the plant. As can be seen in Table 2, the lignin content contained in the oat straw, barley and triticale samples ranged between 12–15%. According to the results obtained, these are lower than the lignin content in wood, which is important because the lignin content affects the color of the cellulose pulp and also other mechanical properties such as resistance. Therefore, the higher the lignin content, the greater the expense in the whitening process if applicable.

3.2. Lignocellulosic Composition of Cereal Straw

The results found from the analysis carried out on the straw samples are shown in Table 3. As can be observed in this table, oat straw has the highest alpha-cellulose content of 40.1%, while barley straw showed an α-cellulose content of 36.4% and finally the triticale straw showed the lowest content of 18.25%.
Similarly, other authors have reported similar values for barley straw with 36.4% [28], 36.2% [40], 34% [41], 34% [42]. Regarding oat straw, there are reports of 37.9% [42]. In the literature, we find works on straws from other cereals, such as corn with 44% [42], Rice with 28–36% [43], Wheat with 39.7% [42], 39.7% [44], 34.8 [25]. In general, it can be observed that the values of cereal straws for α-cellulose are greater than 30%, with the exception of Triticale, which has a very low value of 18.3%. α-Cellulose is one of the molecular structural components of plants that cannot be degraded via NaOH due to its high molecular weight. Meanwhile, a grade of polymerization larger than 500 and α-cellulose content greater than 90% are the main characteristics of pulp in solution for papermaking. The results obtained were favorable for the elaboration of artisan paper such as the α-cellulose content which is greater [45] in both, oat straw and barley straw. For this reason, the triticale straw, that has a lower content of cellulose and is the main compound in paper, is less viable for this application in this case.
Likewise, in Table 3 we find values of other vegetable straws having Brassica nigra with a value of 15.1% and Eucalyptus with 97.9% for α-cellulose. This allows us to notice that vegetable straws with high percentages of α-cellulose can be feasible for use in the paper industry, with which we can save many trees in this sector.
Similarly, β-cellulose is the structural part with the lowest molecular weight and has an amorphous structure. However, β-cellulose is responsible for the flexibility of the molecular chain. In the second column in Table 3, the values of β-cellulose (0–17.7%) for vegetable or straw residues can be seen. In this work, values of 7.7% for barley, 9.6% for oats and 11.4% for triticale were obtained. These values were compared with the results from the literature, where it was reported that there is a 16% β-cellulose for wheat which belongs to the cereal family. Very close values of β-cellulose are reported for timber species (3.7–7.6%) as shown in Table 3.
Finally, gamma-cellulose values are reported in the third column in Table 3 where it can be seen in this column, that triticale has values of 43.8%, barley 26% and 21% in oats. In general, gamma-cellulose are hemicelluloses and low molecular weight residual sugars that do not belong directly to the molecular structure but are physically bound to it, so they do not represent any direct property of cellulose. Therefore, we can indirectly obtain knowledge of other carbohydrates that are part of the composition of the straw or vegetable residues.

3.3. Characterization of the Straws by SEM

The results of the characterization of the straws by SEM are showed in Figure 3, where the internal microstructures of the different samples analyzed are shown. The photomicrographs (A–C) of oat straw show a transverse shot, where a set of individualized vascular bundles is shown between the parenchyma tissue. These are well-structured, cylindrical, compact and continuous. In addition, these do not present fissures.
In the photomicrographs (D–F) that belong to the triticale straw, a smooth, cylindrical, compact and continuous surface, well-structured, is observed. While in barley straw (G–I), a horizontal cut is shown, where fibers can be seen which tend to be irregular in the cuts. For this reason, fibers do not show a uniform cut, but the opposite. However, it can be seen that the straw has an agglomerate of cellulose fibers due to its circular or oval shape.
Figure 3 shows a scanning electron micrograph of the oat, barley and triticale straws, which looks similar to many vegetable fibers [23,24,46,47]. Carvalho et al. [46] reports images of oat straw very similar to Figure 3A–C. According to the micrographs of barley straw (Figure 3D–F), they are very similar to those described by Bouasker et al. [23] as follows from outside to inside; it includes sclerenchyma, parenchyma rings and vascular bundles included in the parenchyma. The cross sections of the different straw fibers have a very dense exterior structure with variable thickness followed by a very porous structure. The porous structure includes hexagonal vessels. Their amount decreases more and more towards the core of the straw particle. The microstructure also showed a random pore size distribution of vascular bundle and an agglomerate of small cells on the outer surface. On the other hand, Palumbo et al. [47] described that the structure of the barley straw was formed by a mixture of parenchymatic cellules and several vascular bundles of fibrous structure. The total thickness of the cellular wall and the plasma membrane of the parenchymatic cellules is about 0.6 mm, with an intercellular space of diameter about 3 mm. Canales et al. [24] report that the barley straw has fibrous and porous structure, very similar to our images (Figure 3D–F).
On the other hand, the structure of barley straw is less complex than that of wood, allowing chemical reagents to eliminate adequately the compounds that are not desired for the paper industry. Furthermore, because it has a lower lignin content, this will reduce the bleaching process, which is decisive, meaning that barley straw can be used to make the paper. Mousaoui et al. [48] showed several porous fibers with the presence of some minerals fixed on wood, bast fibers and vessels. The presence of these crystallized minerals confirmed the conducting function of fibers and the vessels. Gallardo Sanchez et al. [49] found a scanning electron micrograph of the longitudinal section of the agave bagasse fiber. The longitudinal arrangement of a large number of fibrils in tube form was easily observed, with diameters of approximately 200 μm. Material was mixed between the fibers, which could be lignin, hemicelluloses, and extractives. Defects in the surface were also visible, demonstrating that it was not a homogeneous surface. Some shapes and structural parts of other fibers were not perfectly cylindrical.

Characterization of the Straws by Energy Dispersive X-ray Detector Spectrometer (EDS)

Elemental analysis EDS of the sample surfaces was obtained from X-ray spectra produced by scanning electrons at 1000X magnification micrographs (Figure 3F,I). The information on the most localized elemental composition (point analysis) was generated by keeping the electron beam fixed in the micrographs, in which the total scan was performed (global analysis) and the corresponding X-ray spectrum was measured. From the X-ray spectra of the SEM equipment, it integrates the peaks found and normalizes them with respect to the element with the highest intensity.
In Figure 4, the elemental analysis executed by EDS is shown, where the main constituent elements of triticale (4a) and barley (4b) straw are observed as: 1. Carbon (C) with 42.62 and 46.75% mass, and 2. Oxygen (O) with a composition of 49.38 and 39.52% mass, respectively. Other elements present in triticale and barley straw can be seen in Figure 4, such as: N, Si, Al, Na, Cu, Mg, K, Ca, Fe, Cl, P. The content of these elements was low, if one takes into account the amount of ashes. Similar results were reported for plant materials [27,36,50,51]. Other minor elements, such as S, P, Na and Al, were also detected, according to the analytical technique used [52,53,54,55,56].

3.4. Physical Properties of the Paper Produced in This Work

Moreover, grammage or basis weight is an intrinsic physical characteristic of paper which is defined as the weight in grams per square meter (GSM). Grammage of handmade paper greatly influences the stiffness and the strength of the paper, and thus, determines different paper applications [57]. Table 4 shows the average of the replicas made for each of the sheets with different proportions of barley straw, recycled paper and the values obtained by other authors. As can be seen, the sample with a lower basis weight was made with 100% barley straw pulp (G), with 66 g/m2. While manufactured B and E showed 87 g/m2. Prepared samples C and D showed a similar basis weight with 80 and 82 g/m2, respectively. According to the Mexican Standard for Bond Paper NOM-N-70-C-1982 [58], this type of paper must have a grammage of 40–120 g/m2. All the sheets made with the different percentages of barley straw and recycled paper are within the parameters of the standard.
On the other hand, according to the results obtained, the samples fall into the category of papers, of the classification according to weight: Papers (7–150 g/m2), Cardboards (140–450 g/m2), and Cartons (more than 450 g/m2) [59].
According to the weight of the analyzed samples, although it varied from one to another, they all fall within the paper classification because they are below the 125 g/m2 established by the UNE-EN ISO 536:2013 [60]. The variations in the samples are due to the fact that the manufacturing process of the sheets is artisanal and is not standardized, as well as the thickness. This can vary depending on the amount of pulp used when making the sheet.
Table
Table 4. Physical properties of paper sheets prepared with different proportions of barley straw and recycled paper, as well as those of various authors for comparison (Standard deviation).
Table 4. Physical properties of paper sheets prepared with different proportions of barley straw and recycled paper, as well as those of various authors for comparison (Standard deviation).
SampleBasis Weight(g/m2)Thickness (μm)Burst Strength (kPa)Reference
A (0–100%)93 (4)280 (18)75.8 (1)This work
B (20–80%)87 (3)250 (8)103.4 (1)This work
C (40–60%)82 (2)230 (26)68.9 (0.5)This work
D (50–50%)80 (2)220 (5)96.5 (1)This work
E (60–40%)87 (3)220 (5)79.9 (1.1)This work
F (80–20%)96 (3)300 (20)96.5 (2)This work
G (100–0%) 66 (2)190 (2)89.6 (1)This work
Prunus amydalus6411088.3 *[51]
Tamarisk6410364.0 *[51]
Palm rachis6414184.3 *[61]
Astragalus armatus58148148 *[48]
Cynara cardunculus6196101 *[62]
Hanji80150 [57]
Agave americana82410126[34]
Saccharum officinarum94290165[34]
Yucca guatemalensis7628024.6[34]
A. altissima kraft64 43 *[63]
E. globulos65 235 *[63]
Furcraea andina64 151.91[64]
Saccharum officinarum100 57.5[65]
Hibiscus cannabinus101370 [30]
Saccharum officinarumSorghum 150 [66]
Paper50–12576–156250–300[59,65]
Paper40–120 205–370[58]
* Calculated from the values of Burst Index.
Table 4 shows the 7 samples used and characterized them by comparing the grammage or basis weight values with different authors, where values of 58–100 g/m2 were found, very similar to those obtained in this research work. According to what was published by Garcia-berfon et al. [34], the sheets of paper obtained can be used as craft paper for tracing, which can also be used in the making of cards, paintings and decorative works.
On the other hand, thickness or caliper of paper is defined as the perpendicular distance between the two principal surfaces of the paper under prescribed conditions, as measured between hard metal plates. In Table 4 the values of the sheets made with barley straw and recycled paper can be seen. The value obtained from 190 µm thickness for treatment G, with 100% barley straw, is the lowest value. As for treatment A with 100% recycled paper, a thickness of 280 µm was obtained. These large variations in the thickness of the sheets are directly linked to the force exerted in their manufacture and the amount of material added. Due to the results, the recycled paper influenced more in the manufacture of the sheets than the barley straw. When reviewing the data published by other authors, it was noted that for the manufacture of leaves from vegetable residues or straw, the values ranged 96–410 µm. This indicates that the thickness of the sheet manufactured by hand is directly influenced by the compression force during its elaboration.
Table 4 shows the bursting strength values for the paper obtained with values from 68 to 103 kPa. If we review the national and international standards, none of the papers manufactured meet this value. Likewise, the data published by different authors, none of which complies with the regulations. This indicates that they do not present the expected bursting strength as industrially manufactured sheets of paper do, due to the applied compaction process.

Mechanical Properties of the Paper Produced in This Work

The mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared were evaluated and presented in Table 5. Bursting factor is the property of the material that decides its strength, quality and endurance.
The results obtained for the bursting index are the measurement of the resistance of the rupture of the paper [67], and various authors suggest that this property is closely related to the thickness of the cellular wall and the length of the fibers [68]. These are shown in Table 5. The results obtained for the mechanical properties of the paper leaves prepared from the cellulose pulp of barley straw and recycled paper are shown, and it can be observed that the lowest values obtained in this work of investigation corresponds to recycled paper. Similarly, the best values of bursting index in the leaves were found with 100% barley pulp. Within the percentages of barley straw and recycled paper, the leaves did not show any significant difference. These data are particularly promising when it is considered that refining operations before the production of paper were not carried out. The bursting index of barley straw and recycled paper is within the range published for non-timber sheets of paper as 0.25 kPam2/g [30], 0.53 kPam2/g [13], 0.68 kPam2/g [63], 0.87 kPam2/g [69], 1.12 kPam2/g [10], 1.2 kPam2/g [70].
At this point, it is important to highlight that what has influenced the most in this mechanical property are the process, the chemical substances, time, temperature and the size of the fiber. However, these values are acceptable enough for handmade paper [71].
Table
Table 5. Mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared with different proportions of barley straw and recycled paper, as well as those of various authors for comparison (Standard deviation).
Table 5. Mechanical properties of the paper sheets prepared with different proportions of barley straw and recycled paper, as well as those of various authors for comparison (Standard deviation).
SampleBurst Index
(kPam2/g)		Bulk
cm3/g		Reference
A (0–100%)0.813.01This work
B (20–80%)1.182.87This work
C (40–60%)0.842.80This work
D (50–50%)1.202.75This work
E (60–40%)0.912.52This work
F (80–20%)1.003.12This work
G (100–0%)1.352.87This work
Prunus amydalus1.381.72[51]
Tamarisk1.001.58[51]
Palm rachis1.322.21[61]
A. altissima kraft0.681.99[63]
E. Globulos4.281.53[63]
Astragalus armatus2.542.57[48]
Cynara cardunculus1.641.56[62]
Musa paradisiaca8.2 [71]
Arundo donax0.871.77[69]
Agave americana1.535.00[34]
Typha3.10 [72]
Nicotiana tabacum3.98 [73]
Chamaecytisus proliferus0.53 [13]
Hordeum Vulgare2.16 [41]
Oryza sativa1.12 [10]
Hesperaloe funifera4.50 [70]
Hibiscus cannabinus0.253.62[30]
Hordeum Vulgare4.03 [28]
Opuntia ficus-indica3.20 [67]
Cicer arietinum3.17 [74]
Musa paradisiaca8.20 [71]
Triticum5.80 [75]
Saccharum officinarum2.232.5[66]
Sorghum2.552.5[66]
Oryza sativa1.2 [76]
Similarly, the physical properties of the prepared paper sheets found for the bulk values are relatively satisfactory, as observed in Table 5. So, the values obtained for the sheets made with barley straw and recycled paper present values similar to those published by other authors in the range 0.8–1.2 kPam2/g (Table 5). The obtained data shows that this raw material could be considered as a promising raw material for papermaking applications. Considering the structural paper properties, it appeared that the bulk is high, but this property may partially result from an overestimation of the sheet’s thickness due to the presence of impurities, which are not wholly eliminated by the screening operation.

3.5. SEM Analysis

Figure 5 shows the scanning electron microscopy images of the paper obtained, where 5a is the commercial paper, Figure 5b–g is the paper obtained from barley Straw (BS) and recycled paper, (RP) Figure 5h is the bond paper, Figure 5i is the amate paper. In all the images, the cellulose fibers are clearly observed.
If we compare image Figure 3I and Figure 5g, it can be clearly seen that the alkaline thermal straw cooking process was carried out adequately, eliminating lignin and hemicellulose [49,50,77] (Figure 2g). In Figure 5g the presence of fibers not seen in Figure 2g is clearly shown. In general, it was observed that the paper obtained from barley straw and recycled paper meets the quality characteristics, if compared to commercial paper (Figure 5a,h,i). Regarding the morphology, it can be noted that the width of the fibers was similar to other fibers reported in the literature [48,51].
On the other hand, the photomicrographs of the papers produced show that the different morphologies of the fibers reveal certain homogeneity between them and a cylindrical morphology with an average width ranging between 15 µm and 20 µm. Likewise, a low porosity can be observed, causing this material to have properties quite similar to commercial craft paper, which could be further improved by implementing a different treatment (i.e., refining or heat treatment).

3.6. Infrared Analysis

FTIR Spectroscopy was used to identify functional groups present in the samples. The same peaks of absorbance were identified in barley straw and in paper barley straw with only differences in the intensities (Figure 6).
The spectrum of FTIR for barley straw showed the following functional groups: Phosphate group bands (424–511 cm−1), stretch band of CH (594 cm−1) and torsion bands of ≡CH, (700–650 cm−1). Likewise, torsion bands of carboxylic acids with bonds at C=O (960–875 cm−1) can be observed as well as torsion bands outside the amina plane (1114 cm−1). There is also an ether stretch band of CO (1152 cm−1), and an alcohol stretch band of C-OH (1242 cm−1). A stretch band of CH3-C (2667 cm−1) and a torsion band of methylene with CH (1454 cm−1) can also be observed. The stretch band is at 1737 cm−1 with C=O. There is a double carbonyl band with a symmetric stretch, (1843 cm−1), a terminal acetylene with C≡C bonds and A (2052 cm−1), a central acetylene with C≡C bonds, at C≡C (2464 cm−1).
Following the analysis of the functional groups, we have double tension bands of C=C (2464–2551 cm−1), a symmetrical stretch band of CH (2853 cm−1), an asymmetrical stretch band of methylene of CH (2853 cm−1) and between 3435–3740 cm−1 are the flexion bands of a hydroxyl group to a polymer.
Mechi et al. [51] reported similar functional groups at 3340, 2910, 1730 cm−1 for Prunus amygdala and Tamarisk sp. fibers. The bands are comparable to those reported in the literature for other lignocellulose fibers.
Canales et al. [24] explains the peaks in 3425 cm−1 and 2919 cm−1 for the barley husks. The peak at 3400 cm−1 is due to the stretching of the O−H hydrogen. The hydrophilic tendency was reflected in the wide band of absorption, that was related with the −OH groups present in aliphatic alcohol or aromatic composition present in its principal components. The peak around 2900 cm−1 is due to the symmetric and asymmetric stretch C−H of aliphatic saturated compounds. These two peaks of stretching correspond to the aliphatic cellulose and hemicellulose residues. Likewise, Toscano et al. [25] found in straws peaks, and bands of absorption at 3450, 1740, 1600–1650 and 1110–1050 cm−1, which showed the presence of aromatic, phenolic, aliphatic compounds and polysaccharide structures. Jin et al. [78] explains that the results obtained are typical spectrums of cellulose with bands at 3411, 2900, 1640, 1438, 1378, 1321, 1273, 1208, 1164, 1120, 1067, 1023 and 898 cm−1 for barley straw. Ramirez et al. [39] presented characteristic spectrum of the cellulose, with bands of vibration of various functional group characteristics for huizache, similar to the ones here found and reported.
A small peak at 1734 cm−1 corresponding to the carbonyl group (C=O) was attributed the presence of ester acetyl and carbonylic aldehyde in hemicellulose and lignins [49].
At this point, reviewing the results of the spectrum of barley paper straw in Figure 6, the bands showed a major change, in the width of the band as in the intensity of the hydroxyl groups. In the bands of barley without treatment, the width of the peak is less compared to the one of paper elaborated with treated barley straw. The former could indicate that the increase in the intensity of bands was based on the elongation of the hydrogen bonds and the bending of the OH that are attached to the cellulose structure, which also determined for another researcher [79], who pointed out that increasing the absorption of water is detrimental for the mechanical properties of paper. The band of 1737 cm−1 corresponds to the vibration of the stretching of the C=O groups of the residue of acetyl groups and esters of pectin, hemicellulose or the uronic ester bonds of the carboxyl groups in the ferulic and p-coumaric acids of lignin and hemicellulose [80]. As can be seen in Figure 6, the band that may correspond to those compounds appears in both, but they do not present any greater intensity and the peak maintains the same width.
Gallardo et al. [49] clearly observed a decrease in the peaks referring to hemicellulose and lignin in the spectrum of the pulp, while the peaks were not anymore observed in the bleached pulp at 1733, 1507 and 1232 cm−1, with aromatic ring C=O and C=C, and CH of aromatic substitutes, respectively. This indicates that during the alkaline cooking, great proportions of lignin and hemicellulose were eliminated.
In Figure 7, the results of the sheet of paper made with 100% recycled paper, the sheet with 50% barley straw and 50% recycled paper and again the sheet of paper with 100% recycled with treated barley straw are shown. Comparing the spectrum corresponding to the recycled paper sheet, the bands of 424–511 cm−1 that correspond to phosphate groups are not shown, but if they are present in the two remaining spectra, this is since the mineral substances of the cereals are mainly composed of phosphates, sulfates of potassium, magnesium and calcium. Another of the most notable differences is that the 1737 cm−1 band corresponding to the carbonyl groups is not present in the recycled paper sheet and this is because it does not contain lignin, hemicellulose and pectin.

3.7. X-ray Diffraction

According to the X-ray diffraction analysis, the spectra of Figure 8 were obtained, showing the crystalline phases of lignite and cellulose contained, while Table 6 shows the data of the comparison of the crystal size, corresponding to the characteristics of pulp extracted with the pulping method cellulose and handmade method cellulose.
From the diffractograms obtained which correspond to barley straw without any treatment, it can be noted that the sheet made with 100% recycled paper, 50% barley straw sheet and 50% recycled paper, and the sheet made with 100% barley straw were considered, as shown in spectrum 2.
The diffractograms were analyzed to determine the peaks corresponding to lignin and cellulose, which were indexed using the Match program, obtaining peaks at 18.5°, 19.9° and 25.0° for lignin. These are in the ranges reported by Roncero Vivero [81] that indicated that the peaks for lignin are between 16° and 22.5°.
For cellulose, the angles found in the paper sheets made with barley straw with a previous treatment for its use and recycled paper, varied according to the percentages implemented for its elaboration. The peaks corresponding to cellulose of each sheet, in general were found at 12°, 18°, 35° and 46°. Some of these peaks were also found and reported by Salgado-Garcia et al. [82], indicating that these are peaks for cellulose at 12.6°, 20.6°, 22.3° and 35.3°.
From shots of a superficial portion of the paper sample prepared to be analyzed in X-ray diffraction, the peaks were measured together with the values of each Kα1 radiation that were obtained in the curved detector diffractometer. Later, they were calculated and analytically solved for the angular values of θ up to 110°; in addition, the 2θ values for α were listed, the interplanar distance, lattice parameter, Miller indices, crystallite size, and crystallinity of each phase were calculated, and the process was followed to complete the X-ray diffraction pattern.
In Figure 8, the diffractogram of the sample containing the substrate of the artisan paper studied can be seen. For barley straw (lignin), 5 peaks were identified, the barley straw has a PDF of [96-151-9021], and the crystal structure was determined using the analytical method for a tetragonal structure [83]. Determining that it presents a crystalline structure with d = 2.11 Å, a cell parameter a = 2.109 Å, with a crystallite size of 37 Ả, and the Miller indices were calculated to find out its crystalline structure. The following was found: lignin [2 7 5] tetragonal, with a percentage of crystallinity of 22.8%.
For P100-R0 (cellulose) barley straw paper 100%-Recycled 0%, 7 peaks were identified, and the barley straw whose PDF is [96-721-5922] were indexed. It was found that the structure was crystalline [83]. To determine that it shows a monoclinic crystal structure with d = 2.7 Å, the Miller indices were calculated to discern its crystal structure as follows: [2 1 4] monoclinic, 37.1% crystallinity percentage and crystallite size 15 Å.
For P50-R50 (50% barley straw paper-50% recycled), 8 peaks were identified, and the barley straw whose PDF is [96-201-9437] were indexed. The crystalline structure was determined using the analytical method. Determining that it shows a monoclinic crystalline structure with d = 1.5 Å, Miller indices were calculated to recognize (its crystalline structure as follows: [4 1 4] monoclinic. Percentage crystallinity of 31.5%, and crystallite size 7.3 Å.
For P0-R100 (cellulose) 0% barley straw-100% recycled paper, 7 peaks were identified, and the barley straw whose PDF is [96-721-0492] were indexed. The crystalline structure was determined as orthorhombic with d = 2.1 Å. Miller indices were calculated to determine its crystal structure as follows: [0 2 2] orthorhombic; 34.4% crystallinity percentage and crystallite size 21 Å.
From the analysis of the diffractograms, it appears that the change in each of the sheets of paper made with the different treatments to the barley straw without any treatment, showed Gaussian-type peaks. This indicates that the crystal size is smaller although the crystals are more abundant for each of the peaks and with different treatments.
The crystal size possibly increases with the presence of lignin, and its heat treatment. Such crystals experienced a modification after the rupture of the lignin molecules, and the transformation of the cellulose by means of the alkaline heat treatment, carried out to obtain the pulp.
The change presented by the sheets is observed with the displacement of the peaks to the right with a lower angle σ and a small increase in the cell, with greater definition of the peaks and the appearance of new ones; this indicates an improvement in the percentage of crystallinity and a decrease in the crystallite size.
Regarding bursting strength, it was found that sheets with barley straw improve their bursting strength by increasing the percentage of crystallinity of P100-R0 (cellulose) barley straw paper 100%-Recycled 0% cellulose, which is 37.1% and the crystallite size to 15 Å, and with angles σ, 12°, 35° and 46°, as shown in Figure 7.
The sheet made with 100% recycled paper was considered as the upper limit, an intermediate of both combinations, and the sheet made with 100% barley straw as the lower limit; and a blank, to observe the change after carrying out the thermal-alkaline treatment.
As mentioned earlier, compared to the resistance to bursting, the results obtained indicated that the crystallinity is better in the sheets with the highest amount of barley straw. The sheet with the highest percentage of crystallinity is the one made with 100% barley straw with a percentage of crystallinity of 37.1%, followed by the sheet made with 100% recycled paper with a value of 34.4% and finally the combination of P50-R50 with a percentage of 31.5%. It is now known that the treatment worked to increase the crystallinity, while the blank presented a percentage of crystallinity of 22.8%.
Although this was not enough compared to that reported by Salgado-Garcia et al. [82] in Table 6, for paper made from sugar cane straw after obtaining cellulose by a pulping method and a handmade method.
The values obtained from the barley straw sheets and recycled paper are half of those obtained by the homemade method for sugar cane straw paper.

4. Conclusions

The chemical composition of the barley straws was established according to standard methods. The results clearly show that the contained polysaccharides are comparable to those of other plant annuals or agricultural crops. The isolation of the fibers from the beginning was carried out using NaOH and the obtained fibers were characterized by morphological techniques, which confirmed that the two residues could be very promising sources of cellulose fibers, with a view to using them in various applications, such as materials compounds, paper manufacturing, cellulose derivatives, etc. Thus, the manufacture of paper valorization of the resulting pulps provided materials with adequate properties, without the need for mechanical pre-treatment, i.e., refining operations. This feature can be considered a great advantage when looking for new alternative sources of fiber for paper manufacturing. The physical and mechanical properties of the obtained sheets showed that Basis weight, Thickness, Burst strength, burst index and bulk are adequate according to regulations.
According to that observed in the SEM images, it can be noted that the straw has the function of supporting the sheets with combinations of barley straw and recycled paper. The result of the IR analysis indicated that the sheet with an increase in hydroxyl groups was that of barley straw, and therefore, the treatment was efficient. Among the other sheets analyzed was the one with the highest crystallinity. This result was corroborated by X-ray diffraction analysis, in which the percentage of crystallinity of the barley straw paper was 37.1%, exceeding the percentage that the initial barley straw had reported, which was 22.8%. Similarly, the mixture and the use of recycled paper from treatments for the elaboration of the paper, where barley straw (P), recycled paper (R), and native straw (White Ps/t) showed lignin phases of orthorhombic structure with angles σ, 18.5°, 19.9° and 25°; the cellulose monoclinic structure had angles σ, 12°, 35° and 46°.
The results obtained indicated that the crystallinity is better in the sheets with the greater amount of barley straw. The sheet with the highest percentage of crystallinity was the one made with 100% barley straw with a percentage of crystallinity of 37.1%, followed by the sheet made with 100% recycled paper, having a value of 34.4%.
The data was of great importance because the results were close to those found in some woods, being these the main raw material in the production of paper. This gave an idea of the possible cellulose yield it will have. This research work enabled sustainable use and economic benefits to the sector because for every ton of cereal grain produced, a similar amount of straw was generated. Consequently, this work supported the environment through the use of cereal straws in grain producing areas, preventing them from remaining in the fields generating pollution and causing road problems due to small whirlpools with straws that hinder the circulation on the roads near the crops. On the other hand, it also allowed for the incorporation of new short-cycle vegetable materials to the paper industry, thus reducing the use of wood in the manufacture of paper.
These alternatives are of global interest for all cereal producing countries that may have more options for the use of cereal straws, as well as more profitability of their crops by the diversification of uses of all the components generated by the planting of cereals. With this evaluation, it could be determined that it is feasible to implement either only barley straw or a mixture, considering the costs and yields of each of them. Innovative alternatives are proposed here for the paper sector with lignocellulosic materials, which represent an important source of polymeric materials of industrial interest due to their renewable origin.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.H.-Á., A.D.R.-G. and P.L.P.; methodology, A.D.R.-G., E.C.-S., E.S.-R. and A.R.-L.; software, D.D.-Á.; validation, E.C.-S. and A.D.R.-G.; formal analysis, A.D.R.-G., E.S.-R. and J.H.-Á.; investigation, P.L.P.; data curation, J.H.-Á.; writing—original draft preparation, J.H.-Á. and E.S.-R.; writing—review and editing, A.D.R.-G. and E.C.-S.; visualization, A.D.R.-G.; supervision, E.S.-R. and J.H.-Á.; project administration, J.H.-Á., E.S.-R., A.D.R.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

The authors want to thank the CONACyT of the Mexican Government for the support for the SNI distinction as research members and the encouragement received each month. Authors also thank the academic support program PRODEP of the Secretary of Public Education of México, and “BIOPAPPEL KRAFT “company, for allowing me to carry out the corresponding analyses at their facilities.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Scheme of methodology: (a1) warehouse, (b1) grinding, (c1) sample, (d1) Roptap. (a2) fat, (b2) dry matter, (c2) moisture, (d2) total nitrogen. (a3) straw, (b3) filtration, (c3) drying (d3) paper sheets. (a4) SEM, (b4) Eds, (c4) XRD, (d4) FTIR.
Figure 1. Scheme of methodology: (a1) warehouse, (b1) grinding, (c1) sample, (d1) Roptap. (a2) fat, (b2) dry matter, (c2) moisture, (d2) total nitrogen. (a3) straw, (b3) filtration, (c3) drying (d3) paper sheets. (a4) SEM, (b4) Eds, (c4) XRD, (d4) FTIR.
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Sustainability 14 12691 g002 550
Figure 2. Granulometric distribution of the straws (Source: Author).
Figure 2. Granulometric distribution of the straws (Source: Author).
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Sustainability 14 12691 g003 550
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of straw of Oats (A–C), Triticale (D–F) and Barley (G–I). (Source: Author).
Figure 3. Photomicrographs of straw of Oats (A–C), Triticale (D–F) and Barley (G–I). (Source: Author).
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Sustainability 14 12691 g004 550
Figure 4. Elemental analysis (EDS), (a) Triticale straw, (b) Barley straw.
Figure 4. Elemental analysis (EDS), (a) Triticale straw, (b) Barley straw.
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Figure 5. Photomicrographs of the material produced: (a) Sheet of commercial craft paper, (b) Scheme 0. RP, (c) 40 BS–60% RP, (d) 50 BS–50% RP, (e) 60 BS–40% RP, (f) 80 BS–20% RP, (g) 100 BS–0% RP, (h) Bond Paper Sheet, (i) Amate Craft Paper, (Source: Author).
Figure 5. Photomicrographs of the material produced: (a) Sheet of commercial craft paper, (b) Scheme 0. RP, (c) 40 BS–60% RP, (d) 50 BS–50% RP, (e) 60 BS–40% RP, (f) 80 BS–20% RP, (g) 100 BS–0% RP, (h) Bond Paper Sheet, (i) Amate Craft Paper, (Source: Author).
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Figure 6. Infrared spectra of the target (barley straw) and paper made from barley straw with treatment (Source: Author).
Figure 6. Infrared spectra of the target (barley straw) and paper made from barley straw with treatment (Source: Author).
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Figure 7. Infrared spectrum of the recycled paper sheet, 50% barley straw and 50% recycled paper sheet, and the treated barley straw sheet (Source: Author).
Figure 7. Infrared spectrum of the recycled paper sheet, 50% barley straw and 50% recycled paper sheet, and the treated barley straw sheet (Source: Author).
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Figure 8. Diffractograms of the treatments for the elaboration of paper where barley straw (P), recycled paper (R), and native straw (White Ps/t) with lignin phases with angles σ, 18.5°, 19.9° and 25°; cellulose with angles σ, 12°, 35° and 46° (Source: Author).
Figure 8. Diffractograms of the treatments for the elaboration of paper where barley straw (P), recycled paper (R), and native straw (White Ps/t) with lignin phases with angles σ, 18.5°, 19.9° and 25°; cellulose with angles σ, 12°, 35° and 46° (Source: Author).
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Table
Table 1. Proportions of barley straw and recycled paper for making craft paper.
Table 1. Proportions of barley straw and recycled paper for making craft paper.
Sheet PaperBarley StrawRecycled Paper
A0100
B2080
C4060
D5050
E6040
F8020
G1000
Table
Table 2. Chemical composition of straw, expressed as a percentage on a dry basis (Standard deviation).
Table 2. Chemical composition of straw, expressed as a percentage on a dry basis (Standard deviation).
StrawMoistureProteinHolocelluloseLigninAshReferences
Triticosecale9.1 (0.2)8.9 (0.2)73.4 (0.5)14.0 (0.3)4.8 (0.1)This work
Hordeum Vulgare8.1 (0.2)10.3 (0.3)70 (0.3)12.8 (0.4)5.7 (0.1)This work
Avena sativa11.9 (0.4)8.6 (0.4)71.5 (0.7)15.1 (0.4)4.7 (0.1)This work
Hordeum Vulgare 73.815.98.3[28]
Triticum5.351.3 14.98.3[25]
Zea mays 78.86230.761[29]
Saccharum officinarum 73.2419.981.3[29]
Hordeum Vulgare5.6 56.318.210.34[26]
Hordeum Vulgare ZMC7.492.22 15.2[27]
Hordeum Vulgare TCV7.894.93 12.5[27]
Hordeum Vulgare TLM9.107.72 12.2[27]
Hibiscus cannabinus 73.212.50.6[30]
Ochroma pyramidale 82230.49[31]
Ceiba pentandra 7926.21.6[31]
Hevea brasiliensis 80.119.80.7[31]
Table
Table 3. Comparison of Lignocellulosic composition of the straw by several authors, in percentage dry base (Standard deviation).
Table 3. Comparison of Lignocellulosic composition of the straw by several authors, in percentage dry base (Standard deviation).
α-Celluloseβ-Celluloseγ-CelluloseReferences
Avena sativa40.1 (0.3)9.621.9 (0.1)This work
Triticosecale18.3 (3.0)11.443.8 (0.2)This work
Hordeum Vulgare36.4 (1.9)7.726 (0.1)This work
Triticum34.81.78.6[25]
Triticum36.61610[32]
Brassica nigra L.15.19.43.02[33]
Camelina sativa L.20.914.24.1[33]
Agave americana19.24.60.24[34]
A. americana var. marginata19.24.60.26[34]
Alcea rosea37.963.610.4[34]
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis45.43.96.7[34]
Yucca guatemalensis31.94.91.1[34]
L. leucocephala42.917.714.6[35]
C. equisetifolia43.917.213.3[35]
Andropogon gayanus32.832.4513.72[34]
Arundo donax44.822.76.48[34]
Cortaderia jubata11.360.83.84[34]
Guadua angustifolia36.87.361.84[34]
Lavatera arborea417.51.5[34]
Linum usitatissimum49.564.135.31[34]
Saccharum officinarum33.542.157.31[34]
Sida poeppigiana48.145.224.64[34]
Sida rhombifolia25.742.314.95[34]
Residuos de piña (hojas)935.81.25[36]
Beech91.97.62.3[37]
Spruce94.83.72.0[37]
Eucalyptus97.93.61.0[37]
Pine91.08.22.3[37]
Bleached fiber94.972.362.67[37]
Deinked fiber84.247.418.35[38]
Acacia farnesiana94.60.52.7[39]
Table
Table 6. Data of the comparison of the crystal size, corresponding to characteristics of pulp extracted with the pulping method cellulose and home method cellulose (Source: Author).
Table 6. Data of the comparison of the crystal size, corresponding to characteristics of pulp extracted with the pulping method cellulose and home method cellulose (Source: Author).
CharacteristicsPulping Method CelluloseHome Method Cellulose
FWHM (peak width)3.7263.82
2-Theta (°)20.620.66
Crystalline area629637
% of crystallinity74.78%64.24%
Crystal size22 Å22 Å
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Román-Gutiérrez, A.D.; Duana-Ávila, D.; Hernández-Ávila, J.; Cerecedo-Saenz, E.; Salinas-Rodríguez, E.; Rojas-León, A.; López Perea, P. Reuse of Barley Straw for Handmade Paper Production. Sustainability 2022, 14, 12691. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912691

AMA Style

Román-Gutiérrez AD, Duana-Ávila D, Hernández-Ávila J, Cerecedo-Saenz E, Salinas-Rodríguez E, Rojas-León A, López Perea P. Reuse of Barley Straw for Handmade Paper Production. Sustainability. 2022; 14(19):12691. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912691

Chicago/Turabian Style

Román-Gutiérrez, Alma Delia, Danae Duana-Ávila, Juan Hernández-Ávila, Eduardo Cerecedo-Saenz, Eleazar Salinas-Rodríguez, Adriana Rojas-León, and Patricia López Perea. 2022. "Reuse of Barley Straw for Handmade Paper Production" Sustainability 14, no. 19: 12691. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912691

APA Style

Román-Gutiérrez, A. D., Duana-Ávila, D., Hernández-Ávila, J., Cerecedo-Saenz, E., Salinas-Rodríguez, E., Rojas-León, A., & López Perea, P. (2022). Reuse of Barley Straw for Handmade Paper Production. Sustainability, 14(19), 12691. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912691

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