Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus in Different Mucous Membranes in HIV Concordant Couples in Rwanda
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Real-Time PCR for Detection of HPVs
2.2. Cytology
2.3. Statistics
3. Results
3.1. Demographic Characteristics
3.2. Prevalence of HPV in Different Mucous Membranes and Cytology
3.3. Concordance of HR-HPV Infections
3.4. Risk Factors Contracting HR-HPV Infections
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Sex, n (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Characteristics | Male 50 (50) | Female 50 (50) | p-Value |
Age | 0.008 | ||
30–39 | 2 (4) | 5 (10) | |
40–49 | 7 (14) | 20 (40) | |
50–59 | 23 (46) | 19 (38) | |
60–69 | 15 (30) | 5 (10) | |
70–79 | 3 (6) | 1 (2) | |
Level of Education | 0.663 | ||
None | 3 (6) | 5 (10) | |
Incomplete primary school | 4 (8) | 7 (14) | |
Complete Primary school | 13 (26) | 15 (30) | |
Incomplete Secondary school | 19 (38) | 12 (24) | |
Complete secondary school | 8 (16) | 9 (18) | |
Incomplete University | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Complete University | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | |
Occupation | 0.001 | ||
Farming | 3 (6) | 8 (16) | |
Civil servant | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | |
Business | 10 (20) | 13 (26) | |
Community health worker | 1 (2) | 3 (6) | |
Driver | 4 (8) | 0 (0) | |
Tourism | 3 (6) | 4 (8) | |
Security guard | 4 (8) | 0 (0) | |
Technical worker | 7 (14) | 0 (0) | |
Pastor | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | |
Private sector | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | |
Retired | 7 (14) | 1 (2) | |
Unemployed | 8 (16) | 20 (40) | |
CD4 (cells/mL) | 0.01 | ||
<200 | 10 (20) | 4 (8) | |
200–500 | 29 (58) | 21 (42) | |
>500 | 11 (22) | 25 (50) | |
Viral load (Virus/mL) | 0.459 | ||
<400 | 47 (94) | 48 (96) | |
400–5000 | 3 (6) | 2 (4) | |
>5000 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Serious diseases | 0.221 | ||
No | 27 (54) | 33 (66) | |
Yes | 23 (46) | 17 (34) | |
Specified | |||
Cancer | 3 (6) | 2 (4) | |
Cardiovascular | 6 (12) | 4 (8) | |
Rheumatic disease | 2 (4) | 1 (2) | |
Diabetes | 5 (10) | 4 (8) | |
Respiratory tract disease | 2 (4) | 3 (6) | |
Hepatitis B | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | |
Other diseases | 4 (8) | 2 (4) | |
Smoking | <0.0001 | ||
No | 25 (50) | 45 (90) | |
Yes | 2 (4) | 0 (0) | |
Ex-smoker | 23 (46) | 5 (10) | |
Use of alcohol | 0.010 | ||
Never | 29 (58) | 40 (80) | |
Once a month | 2 (4) | 3 (6) | |
Once a week | 7 (14) | 6 (12) | |
Several times a week | 12 (24) | 1 (2) | |
Live births * | |||
0 | - | 2 (4) | |
1–2 | - | 16 (32) | |
3–4 | - | 17 (34) | |
5–6 | - | 9 (18) | |
More than 6 | - | 6 (12) | |
Abortions * | |||
0 | - | 27 (54) | |
1 | - | 10 (20) | |
2 | - | 9 (18) | |
More than 2 | - | 4 (8) | |
First sexual intercourse | 0.425 | ||
10–14 | 2 (4) | 0 (0) | |
15–19 | 13 (26) | 18 (36) | |
20–24 | 23 (46) | 23 (46) | |
25–29 | 9 (18) | 8 (16) | |
30–35 | 3 (6) | 1 (2) | |
Number of sex partners | 0.012 | ||
1–2 | 17 (34) | 27 (54) | |
3–4 | 10 (20) | 15 (30) | |
5–6 | 7 (14) | 5 (10) | |
7–8 | 3 (6) | 0 (0) | |
>8 | 13 (26) | 3 (6) | |
Number of orogenital sex partners of the opposite sex | 0.007 | ||
0 partners | 9 (18) | 8 (16) | |
1–2 partners | 14 (28) | 29 (58) | |
3–4 partners | 10 (20) | 10 (20) | |
5–6 partners | 5 (10) | 2 (4) | |
7–8 partners | 2 (4) | 0 (0) | |
>8 partners | 10 (20) | 1 (2) | |
Number of orogenital sex partners of the same sex | 1.00 | ||
0 partners | 50 (100) | 50 (100) | |
1 partner and above | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Number of anal sex partners of the opposite sex | 0.315 | ||
0 partners | 49 (98) | 50 (100) | |
1–2 partners | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | |
Number of anal sex partners of the same sex | 1.00 | ||
0 partners | 50 (100) | 50 (100) | |
1 partner and above | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Previous gonorrhoea infection | 0.385 | ||
Yes | 22 (44) | 17 (34) | |
No | 28 (56) | 32 (64) | |
I do not know | 0 (0) | 1 (2) | |
Previous syphilis infection | 0.461 | ||
Yes | 9 (18) | 12 (24) | |
No | 41 (82) | 38 (76) | |
I do not know | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | |
Previous chlamydia infection | 0.697 | ||
Yes | 6 (12) | 6 (12) | |
No | 35 (70) | 38 (76) | |
I do not know | 9 (18) | 6 (12) | |
Previous other STI | N/A | ||
No | 42 (84) | 42 (84) | |
Yes-specified | |||
Urinary tract infection | 6 (12) | 4 (8) | |
Bacterial vaginosis | - | 2 (4) | |
Trichomonas vaginalis | - | 2 (4) | |
Not specified | 2 (4) | - | |
Contraceptive methods | N/A | ||
Female sterilization | 3 (6) | 3 (6) | |
Male sterilization | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | |
Contraceptive implant | 6 (12) | 6 (12) | |
Contraceptive injectable | 3 (6) | 4 (8) | |
Contraceptive pills | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | |
Male condom | 12 (24) | 8 (16) | |
Rhythm method monitoring fertility | 3 (6) | 4 (8) | |
Withdrawal of penis before ejaculation | 1 (2) | 0 (0) | |
Other method | 0 (0) | 1 (2) | |
None of them | 20 (40) | 21 (42) | |
Pap smear test | N/A | ||
Yes | - | 29 (58) | |
No | - | 20 (40) | |
I do not know | - | 1 (2) |
Oral | Oropharynx | Anus | Cervix | Vagina -sc | Vagina -pc | Penis | Sum (% of All Infections) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HPV6 | 1 (1) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 1 (2) | 8 (7) | ||
HPV11 | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 3 (3) | ||||
HPV16 | 10 (10) | 2 (2) | 3 (3) | 6 (12) | 5 (10) | 6 (12) | 2 (4) | 34 (30) |
HPV18 | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 4 (8) | 6 (5) | ||||
HPV31 | 1 (1) | 2 (2) | 2 (4) | 5 (4) | ||||
HPV33 | 1 (1) | 1 (1) | ||||||
HPV35 | 3 (3) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 9 (8) | |||
HPV39 | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 6 (5) | ||
HPV45 | 1 (1) | 3 (6) | 4 (4) | |||||
HPV51 | 1 (1) | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | 5 (4) | |||
HPV52 | 2 (1) | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 3 (6) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 11 (10) | |
HPV56 | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | 2 (4) | 1 (2) | 7 (6) | ||
HPV58 | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | 6 (5) | ||
HPV59 | 2 (2) | 1 (1) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 2 (4) | 8 (7) |
Anatomical Site of HPV Infection | Yes/No | Males (n = 50) | Females (n = 50) | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Oral LR-HPV | Yes | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1.00 |
No | 50 (100) | 50 (100) | ||
Oral HR-HPV | Yes | 5 (10) | 6 (12) | 1.00 |
No | 45 (90) | 44 (88) | ||
Oropharynx LR-HPV | Yes | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1.00 |
No | 50 (100) | 50 (100) | ||
Oropharynx HR-HPV | Yes | 5 (10) | 0 (0) | 0.06 |
No | 45 (90) | 50 (100) | ||
Anus LR-HPV | Yes | 1 (2) | 1 (2) | 1.00 |
No | 49 (98) | 49 (98) | ||
Anus HR-HPV | Yes | 1 (2) | 12 (24) | 0.002 |
No | 49 (98) | 38 (76) | ||
Penis LR-HPV | Yes | 2 (4) | ||
No | 48 (96) | |||
Penis HR-HPV | Yes | 12 (24) | ||
No | 38 (76) | |||
Vagina LR-HPV (physician sampling) | Yes | 2 (4) | ||
No | 48 (96) | |||
Vagina HR-HPV (physician sampling) | Yes | 15 (30) | ||
No | 35 (70) | |||
Vagina LR-HPV (self-sampling) | Yes | 2 (4) | ||
No | 48 (96) | |||
Vagina HR-HPV (self-sampling) | Yes | 16 (32) | ||
No | 34 (68) | |||
Cervix LR-HPV | Yes | 3 (6) | ||
No | 47 (94) | |||
Cervix HR-HPV | Yes | 12 (24) | ||
No | 38 (76) |
M Oral | M Oropharynx | M Anus | Penis | F Oral | F Oropharynx | F Anus | Cervix | Vagina-sc | Vagina-pc | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M Oral | 1 | 0.46 ±0.17 *** | −0.03 ±0.03 | −0.03 ±0.11 | 0.56 ±0.17 *** | No cases | −0.20 ±0.05 | −0.08 ±0.11 | −0.12 ±0.09 | −0.13 ±0.09 |
M Oropharynx | 1 | −0.03±0.03 | 0.04 ±0.12 | 0.02 ±0.14 | No cases | −0.22 ±0.05 | −0.21 ±0.05 | −0.25 ±0.07 * | −0.24 ±0.06 * | |
M Anus | 1 | 0.07 ±0.07 | −0.03 ±0.03 | No cases | −0.04 ±0.04 | 0.11 ±0.10 | −0.04 ±0.04 | 0.08 ±0.07 | ||
Penis | 1 | −0.19 ±0.06 | No cases | −0.25 ±0.09 * | −0.18 ±0.11 | −0.36 ±0.09 ** | −0.24 ±0.10 # | |||
F Oral | 1 | No cases | 0.07 ±0.14 | −0.07 ±0.11 | −0.004 ±0.11 | −0.10 ±0.10 | ||||
F Oropharynx | No cases | No cases | No cases | No cases | No cases | |||||
F Anus | 1 | 0.42 ±0.15 ** | 0.36 ±0.13 ** | 0.30 ±0.14 * | ||||||
Cervix | 1 | 0.54 ±0.13 *** | 0.51 ±0.13 *** | |||||||
Vagina-sc | 1 | 0.70 ±0.10 *** | ||||||||
Vagina-pc | 1 |
Men | Women | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
COR (95% CI) | Sign. | AOR (95% CI) | Sign. | COR (95% CI) | Sign. | AOR (95% CI) | Sign. | |
Age | ||||||||
≤51 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
>51 | 0.52 (0.15–1.81) | 0.31 | 0.38 (0.05-3.13) | 0.37 | 2.12 (0.60–7.48) | 0.25 | 9.80 (0.21–461.39) | 0.25 |
Level of Education | ||||||||
Less than complete secondary school | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Complete secondary school and beyond | 1.67 (0.43–6.50) | 0.46 | 2.18 (0.22–21.68) | 0.51 | 1.03 (0.27–3.94) | 0.97 | 3.01 (0.17–54.01) | 0.45 |
CD4 (cells/mL) | 0.65 | 0.20 | 0.31 | 0.09 | ||||
>500 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
200–500 | 1.14 (0.17–7.60) | 0.89 | 0.51 (0.01–21.17) | 0.72 | 1.27 (0.15–10.53) | 0.82 | 0.02 (0–2.33) | 0.08 |
<200 | 1.88 (0.41–8.60) | 0.41 | 5.09 (0.34–76.07) | 0.24 | 2.55 (0.76–8.48) | 0.13 | 70.80 (0.45–11,134) | 0.10 |
Viral load (Virus/mL) | ||||||||
<400 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
400–5000 | 3,446,346,331 (0-) | 1.00 | 21,944,977,929, (0-) | 1.00 | 0.85 (0.05–14.33) | 0.91 | 18.30 (0–8,605,648) | 0.66 |
Smoking | ||||||||
Never | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Ever | 1.00 (0.32–3.17) | 1.00 | 1.44 (0.18–11.68) | 0.73 | 1.31 (0.20–8.62) | 0.78 | 1.89 (0.01–639.98) | 0.83 |
Use of alcohol | ||||||||
Never/seldom | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Once a month and more | 2.39 (0.73–7.78) | 0.15 | 4.98 (0.63–39.50) | 0.13 | 0.49 (0.12–2.02) | 0.33 | 2.16 (0.10–46.36) | 0.62 |
Live births | 0.36 | 0.22 | ||||||
0–2 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
3–4 | 0.56 (0.15–2.14) | 0.40 | 0.17 (0.06–4.92) | 0.30 | ||||
>4 | 1.60 (0.39–6.62) | 0.52 | 6.46 (0.11–386.53) | 0.37 | ||||
Abortions | ||||||||
0–1 | Reference | Reference | ||||||
>1 | 7.22 (1.40–37.25) | 0.02 | 276.39 (1.18–64,873) | 0.04 | ||||
First sexual intercourse | ||||||||
<21 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
≥21 | 0.71 (0.22–2.25) | 0.56 | 0.82 (0.12–5.85) | 0.84 | 1.21 (0.39–3.69) | 0.74 | 0.43 (0.03–6.18) | 0.53 |
Number of sex partners | ||||||||
0–2 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
>2 | 3.82 (1.13–12.95) | 0.03 | 1.77 (0.13–23.67) | 0.67 | 3.00 (0.54–16.60) | 0.21 | 1478.09 (1.53–1,430,837) | 0.04 |
Number of orogenital sex partners | ||||||||
0–2 | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
>2 | 3.34 (0.96–11.62) | 0.06 | 2.72 (0.22–33.95) | 0.44 | 0.99 (0.28–3.52) | 0.99 | 0.19 (0.01–5.93) | 0.34 |
Previous gonorrhoea infection | 0.21 | 0.10 | ||||||
No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | 2.08 (0.64–6.73) | 0.22 | 1.63 (0.19–14.19) | 0.66 | 3.09 (0.88–10.83) | 0.08 | 1042.63 (1.88–577,026) | 0.03 |
I do not know | 2,077,039,084 (0-) | 1.00 | 89,632,519 (0-) | 1.00 | ||||
Previous syphilis infection | 0.21 | |||||||
No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | 1.54 (0.36–6.67) | 0.56 | 0.77 (0.03–18.51) | 0.87 | 2.00 (0.51–7.78) | 0.32 | 0.01 (0.00–2.42) | 0.10 |
Previous chlamydia infection | 0.25 | 0.71 | 0.25 | 0.10 | ||||
No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | 2.50 (0.43–14.54) | 0.31 | 0.28 (0.00–18.95) | 0.55 | 2.22 (0.36–13.62) | 0.39 | 0.06 (0–20.71) | 0.35 |
I do not know | 3.13 (0.69–14.08) | 0.14 | 1.54 (0.08–30.84) | 0.78 | 5.56 (0.59–52.16) | 0.13 | 23,199 (2.30–233,872,654) | 0.03 |
Contraceptive methods | ||||||||
Other method than condom/none | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Male condom | 0.32 (0.06–1.68) | 0.18 | 0.26 (0.02–3.57) | 0.31 | 0.45 (0.09–2.13) | 0.31 | 1.55 (0.03–72.71) | 0.82 |
Pap smear test | 0.84 | 0.92 | ||||||
No | Reference | Reference | ||||||
Yes | 0.71 (0.22–2.22) | 0.55 | 0.57 (0.04–8.97) | 0.69 | ||||
I do not know | 0 (0-) | 1.00 | 0 (0-) | 1.00 | ||||
Partner HR-HPV positive | ||||||||
No | Reference | Reference | Reference | Reference | ||||
Yes | 1.57 (0.49–5.08) | 0.45 | 0.82 (0.12–5.55) | 0.84 | 1.57 (0.49–5.08) | 0.45 | 17.93 (0.24–1320) | 0.19 |
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Uwamungu, S.; Nigussie, B.; Muvunyi, C.M.; Hasséus, B.; Andersson, M.; Giglio, D. Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus in Different Mucous Membranes in HIV Concordant Couples in Rwanda. Viruses 2023, 15, 1005. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041005
Uwamungu S, Nigussie B, Muvunyi CM, Hasséus B, Andersson M, Giglio D. Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus in Different Mucous Membranes in HIV Concordant Couples in Rwanda. Viruses. 2023; 15(4):1005. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041005
Chicago/Turabian StyleUwamungu, Schifra, Bethelehem Nigussie, Claude Mambo Muvunyi, Bengt Hasséus, Maria Andersson, and Daniel Giglio. 2023. "Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus in Different Mucous Membranes in HIV Concordant Couples in Rwanda" Viruses 15, no. 4: 1005. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041005
APA StyleUwamungu, S., Nigussie, B., Muvunyi, C. M., Hasséus, B., Andersson, M., & Giglio, D. (2023). Prevalence of Human Papillomavirus in Different Mucous Membranes in HIV Concordant Couples in Rwanda. Viruses, 15(4), 1005. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15041005