Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) in Timber Construction: Advancing Energy Efficiency and Climate Neutrality in the Built Environment

Abstract

The objective of this article is to evaluate the viability of implementing the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) methodology in the design and construction of complex wooden structures with non-standard geometry. The present study incorporates an analysis of scientific literature from 2011 to 2024, in addition to selected case studies of buildings constructed using glued laminated timber and engineered wood prefabrication technology. The selection of examples was based on a range of criteria, including geometric complexity, the level of integration of digital tools (BIM, CAM, parametric design), and the efficiency of assembly processes. The implementation of DfMA principles has been shown to result in a reduction in material waste by 15–25% and a reduction in assembly time by approximately 30% when compared to traditional construction methods. The findings of the present study demonstrate that the concurrent integration of design, production, and assembly in the timber construction process enhances energy efficiency, curtails embodied carbon emissions, and fosters the adoption of circular economy principles. The analysis also reveals key implementation barriers, such as insufficient digital skills, lack of standardization, and limited availability of prefabrication facilities. The article under scrutiny places significant emphasis on the pivotal role of DfMA in facilitating the digital transformation of timber architecture and propelling sustainable construction development in the context of the circular economy. The conclusions of the study indicate a necessity for further research to be conducted on quantitative life cycle assessment (LCA, LCC) and on the implementation of DfMA on both a national and international scale.

1. Introduction

Despite its fundamental importance for socio-economic development and its enormous impact on the environment, the construction industry remains one of the least automated and digitized sectors of the economy. The sector has long been plagued by low productivity, fragmented processes, significant material consumption, and waste generation [1]. In response to these challenges, strategies for the industrial manufacture of building components and the integration of design with production and assembly processes are becoming increasingly important. One of the key approaches enabling this transformation is the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) methodology, which aims to optimize construction at the design stage [2].

Within the parameters of this article, the term ‘complex buildings’ is employed to denote structures characterized by non-standard geometry and complex structural systems, including curved, free-form, or irregular shapes. The integration of digital design tools and precision manufacturing techniques is imperative in the design and construction of such edifices. The prefabrication of complex buildings poses a challenge to traditional methods, which rely on the repeatability of modules and standard connections [3]. In the extant literature on DfMA, “complex geometry” is used to denote architecture in which parametric design and digital fabrication play a pivotal role in the combination of the design concept with material and manufacturing constraints. DfMA significantly reduces energy consumption across the lifecycles of prefabricated timber structures by optimizing production, transportation, and on-site assembly. By standardizing components and adopting modular panelization, DfMA minimizes material waste and machining operations in the factory, decreasing embodied energy associated with cutting, machining, and off-cuts. Precision factory fabrication enables tighter tolerances and less reliance on energy-intensive corrective work on-site. Simplified assembly sequences reduce on-site labor time and equipment use, cutting transport-related energy. The lightweight nature of engineered timber structures paired with DfMA fosters lower transportation emissions compared to heavy counterparts. Furthermore, incorporating interlocking connections in modular timber systems promotes material reuse and circularity, further diminishing lifecycle energy demands and global warming potentials through rapid assembly/disassembly and reduced end-of-life waste. These attributes position DfMA as a key strategy for advancing energy efficiency in timber construction, aligning with broader goals of climate neutrality in the built environment. Collectively, these efficiencies contribute to reductions in both embodied and operational energy, aligning timber DfMA practices with broader climate-neutrality goals in the built environment [4].

In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in design methodologies that simultaneously enhance energy efficiency, reduce emissions, and expedite investment completion times. A pivotal approach facilitating this transformation is Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA), a concept integrating the design process with manufacturing and assembly processes to enhance the efficiency, quality, and environmental sustainability of buildings. The DfMA approach entails the design of structures with a focus on future prefabrication, transportation, and assembly, thereby leading to a substantial reduction in material and energy losses [5]. It has been demonstrated that the efficacy of this approach in the context of modular construction and standard prefabrication systems has been substantiated by a number of preceding studies. Nevertheless, its implementation in projects characterized by complex geometry remains constrained. The present study is predicated on the identification of this research gap.

DfMA has evolved from a concept originating in the manufacturing industry to a comprehensive methodology integrating digital design (BIM, parametric modeling) with prefabrication and on-site assembly processes. Research indicates that integrated design environments support interdisciplinary collaboration, automate documentation preparation, facilitate early collision detection, and enable life-cycle efficiency analysis [6,7]. Notwithstanding this potential, the implementation of DfMA in the construction sector remains limited. The underlying factors contributing to this phenomenon include inadequate standardization of guidelines, the fragmentation of design responsibility, and an inability to adapt the DfMA principles to the unique characteristics of the construction industry. The latter differs from the manufacturing industry in terms of scale, variability, and process complexity.

The integration of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) principles, facilitated by Industry 4.0 technologies, is imperative for the comprehensive utilization of the potential inherent in customized engineered timber structures. The implementation of this technology has been demonstrated to enhance efficiency, precision, and sustainability. The DfMA concept was originally developed for the field of industrial design with the objective of enhancing production efficiency, reducing waste, and reducing costs [6,7,8,9,10]. However, it is increasingly being utilized in the construction industry. In the context of timber construction, this methodology underscores the interconnection between architectural intentions and material constraints, manufacturing capabilities, and on-site assembly logistics. This is especially salient in the context of non-standard forms, where conventional construction methodologies, predicated on the utilization of repeatable modules, prove inadequate to facilitate the economical integration of elements characterized by intricate geometries [11]. The application of DfMA principles in such projects has been shown to facilitate a reduction in errors related to material anisotropy, dimensional stability, and assembly sequence through the early consideration of manufacturing tolerances, component joining technologies, and digital manufacturing processes [12].

The DfMA methodology is increasingly being combined with the principles of Design for Deconstruction (DfD) and Design for Circularity, which are in line with the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 9, SDG 12, SDG 13). The integration of these methodologies enables the prolongation of the service life of materials, the reduction in construction waste, and the reuse of structural components. This contributes to the industry’s transition to a circular economy model [5,8]. Concurrently, DfMA advocates for the Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) model, predicated on collaboration between designers, manufacturers, and contractors from the nascent stages of the investment process [13].

Despite the growing interest in the DfMA methodology, a clear research gap remains with regard to its application in projects with complex geometry. The majority of extant studies have focused on modular buildings and systems, which exhibit a high degree of component repeatability. This allows for precise quality control; however, it also limits formal innovation [5]. Conversely, non-standard shapes necessitate the utilization of sophisticated digital methodologies and close collaboration between designers and manufacturers. Research indicates that the use of BIM tools, parametric modeling, and robotization within DfMA can enable the cost-effective implementation of highly complex structures [11]. However, there is still a paucity of in-depth empirical analyses to assess the energy and environmental performance of such solutions compared to traditional methods. In the timber construction sector, the implementation of DfMA necessitates the adaptation of production methods to the specific characteristics of the material and assembly processes. The integration of Building Information Modeling (BIM) and prefabrication technologies in timber projects faces technical and organizational barriers, confirming the need for further research in this area [12].

In view of the findings outlined above, the objective of this study is to evaluate the feasibility of adapting the DfMA methodology to timber structures characterized by intricate geometric forms. The primary objectives are as follows:

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The initial step involves the identification of design strategies that facilitate the transfer of DfMA principles from the context of standard prefabricated elements to individual architecture.

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The subsequent analysis will examine the impact of the aforementioned strategies on three key areas: energy efficiency, emission reduction, and design innovation.

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The third element of the research focuses on the identification of barriers to implementation in relation to digital technologies, the organization of processes, and the design culture within the construction industry.

The article thus endeavors to address the extant research gap by establishing a connection between the principles of DfMA theory and their practical application in the domain of timber architecture.

The article is organized as follows: The second section of the text provides a comprehensive overview of the research methodology and the analytical assumptions that were employed in the study. In Section 3, the results of the case study are discussed, and the effectiveness of applying DfMA principles to engineered wood construction projects is evaluated. In Section 4, a discussion is presented in which the results are compared with those of previous studies. These results are then interpreted in the context of digital technologies, sustainable development, and implementation potential in Poland. The final section of the thesis presents conclusions, research limitations, and recommendations for future directions in the development of DfMA methodology in timber construction.

The originality of this study lies in the integration of three dimensions of analysis: technological (digital tools and prefabrication), environmental (energy efficiency and emission reduction), and structural (adaptation of DfMA to complex architectural forms). In contrast to the extant literature on modular systems, the present study extends the scope of DfMA to applications in non-standard structures. This highlights the potential of this methodology for the sustainable development of timber architecture.

2. Materials and Methods

The primary objective of this study is to analyze the principles of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) in the realization of complex structures made from engineered wood products that influence the methodologies of designing and constructing modern wooden buildings. To achieve this goal, the paper is divided into two main stages: a literature review and building studies, as outlined below (Figure 1).

This study employs a hybrid literature and problem-based review to investigate implementation aspects of engineered timber structures, with emphasis on features that shape architectural form and building structure. The process begins by clearly defining the research problem and objectives. A scoping literature review is then conducted to establish the theoretical foundation and identify knowledge gaps. Explicit selection criteria are developed to choose a focused set of leading, influential engineered timber buildings as case studies. Each selected building undergoes multi-level case study analysis using drawings, sections, photographs, details, and reports to extract implementation-related data. A targeted, problem-based evaluation isolates the specific features (e.g., engineered wood manufacturing technology) that most strongly influence architectural and structural expression. Findings from all cases are compared with the literature review to identify recurring patterns and critical factors. The opportunities and barriers of DfMA-centered design are represented in SWOT analysis. The study concludes by summarizing the most decisive features for successful engineered timber design and offering practical recommendations for architecture and construction.

2.1. Stage 1—Literature Review

This stage involves analyzing the standards for constructing wooden buildings with zero CO₂ emissions. Two main criteria guided the selection of scientific papers for this analysis: (i) thematic scope, focusing on the design, manufacturing, and assembly of wooden structures; and (ii) temporal scope, including papers published between 2011 and 2024. The selected time range limits the review to the most recent scientific articles, ensuring that the analysis is focused on the latest developments and current trends in the field. This approach prioritizes up-to-date information, providing insights that reflect the most recent research findings and advancements.

2.1.1. Prefabrication of Timber Construction

Engineered wood construction emerges as a transformative alternative to traditional building materials, offering substantial environmental advantages through carbon sequestration, reduced emissions, and enhanced resource efficiency compared to energy-intensive materials like concrete, steel, and brick [14]. As noted by Berge [15], sustainable construction requires materials from renewable sources with minimal environmental impact throughout their lifecycle. Engineered wood exemplifies this principle as a renewable resource harvested from sustainably managed forests where trees are replanted after harvest. This contrasts sharply with steel and concrete production, which depletes finite mineral resources through energy-intensive extraction and processing [15].

By optimizing the design of buildings and their components for efficient off-site manufacturing and on-site assembly, DfMA addresses the industry’s challenges of low productivity and environmental impact. Based on a synthesis of key literature, this review identifies the most common DfMA methodologies: prefabrication methods, digital tools, design approaches, and a philosophical shift toward innovation [2,16,17,18]. Each methodology is explored in detail, highlighting its application, benefits, and contribution to sustainable, quick, and cost-effective prefabricated construction.

2.1.2. Design for CNC Manufacturing of Engineered Wood Structures

Progress in wood engineering includes the development of advanced wood-based composites, the use of CNC machines and 3D printing for precise fabrication, and innovative non-chemical treatments like thermal modification to enhance wood properties [19]. Research also focuses on sustainable development and green manufacturing technologies, such as adhesive-free composite production, to address environmental concerns [20]. Additionally, new wood nanotechnologies are emerging for applications in carbon storage and the development of novel wood products [21].

Digital fabrication and additive manufacturing further advance DfMA, particularly for non-standard elements, and reduce waste in prefabricated construction. Architecturally, parametric modeling enables complex designs like 3D-printed pavilions, adaptable to timber hybrids. Structurally, topology optimization creates lightweight, anisotropic cellular structures for load-bearing walls, improving mechanical properties [11]:

• Integration of DfMA in design engineering practice.
• Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a cornerstone of DfMA, serving as a digital platform that integrates design, manufacturing, and assembly processes. BIM facilitates comprehensive design reviews, construction feasibility assessments, and cost simulations through three-dimensional modeling, enabling stakeholders to make informed decisions throughout the project life cycle [16]. By providing a virtual representation of the building, BIM allows for the identification of potential design conflicts and inefficiencies early in the process, reducing errors and rework. This methodology supports the production of prefabricated modules by ensuring designs are optimized for manufacturing and assembly, contributing to cost savings and faster project delivery. For example, BIM has been used to streamline the design of prefabricated non-structural components, such as timber frame walls and plumbing systems, in residential buildings [16]. The integration of BIM with DfMA principles enhances coordination among project stakeholders, improving overall project efficiency and sustainability (Figure 2a–c).

Integration with Building Information Modeling (BIM) emerges as a dominant theme, enhancing DfMA’s efficacy in timber contexts. Staub-French et al. [22] highlight BIM-DfMA synergies in mass timber construction (MTC), where BIM facilitates seamless data flow to CNC machines, reducing design reviews and enabling prefabrication of complex timber elements like cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Architecturally, this allows for innovative, non-standard geometries in timber structures, such as curved facades [20,21]. Structurally, it ensures manufacturability of load-bearing components and assembly coordination (Figure 3).

Early integration of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) methodology in building design engineering is crucial for optimizing project outcomes from the outset. By incorporating DFMA principles early, such as during conceptual stages, it minimizes redesigns, standardizes components, and aligns design with manufacturing capabilities, leading to substantial cost reductions and timeline shortenings. This approach also enhances sustainability through waste reductions and lower carbon emissions while improving construction quality and safety in controlled factory environments. Furthermore, it fosters multidisciplinary collaboration among architects, engineers, manufacturers, and contractors, reducing fragmentation and errors for more efficient workflows [1,6,7,8,22,23,24,25].

Table 1. Priority of DfMA in building design process.

Stages of Building Design Process	DfMA Integration Priority
1. Definition	low
2. Feasibility study	medium
3. Concept design	high
4. Building regulations approval	low
5. Detailed design	high
6. Design of prefabricated building systems	high

presents DfMA integration priority at every stage of the building design process.

2.1.3. Design of Engineered Wood Structures and Energy Savings

Architectural and building engineering design play pivotal roles in optimizing manufacturing processes within the construction sector, directly contributing to energy savings and enhanced efficiency. By incorporating principles that prioritize manufacturability and assembly from the outset, designs can minimize energy-intensive rework, reduce material usage, and streamline production workflows. For instance, energy-efficient architecture focuses on foundational planning that integrates sustainable materials and processes, leading to reduced operational energy demands and lower lifecycle costs [26]. In manufacturing systems, holistic approaches emphasize machine-level, system-level, and lifecycle-level energy efficiency, enabling significant reductions in energy consumption through improved process chains and resource management [27]. Empirical studies in China highlight that measuring energy consumption efficiency reveals substantial potential for savings, particularly in regions with high construction activity, where inefficiencies in material processing and assembly contribute to excess energy use [28]. Furthermore, strategies such as adopting high-efficiency equipment and optimizing industrial processes have been shown to yield energy savings in related sectors, underscoring the transferability of these methods to construction manufacturing [29]. These design optimizations not only curb direct energy use but also mitigate indirect impacts, such as those from transportation and waste handling, fostering a more sustainable built environment.

Architectural and building engineering design serve as critical elements in optimizing manufacturing processes within the construction sector, particularly through the adoption of modular and prefabricated approaches that inherently reduce energy consumption. By prioritizing designs that facilitate off-site fabrication, these disciplines enable controlled environments where precision engineering minimizes material overuse and energy-intensive on-site adjustments. For example, modular construction leverages design principles that enhance quality, economy, and time efficiency, while incorporating environmental considerations such as improved insulation and airtightness, leading to reduced operational energy needs [30]. Energy efficiency is further advanced by addressing barriers like complex stakeholder relationships and legacy practices, which can be overcome through participatory techniques and integrated planning that prioritize energy-saving technologies from the design phase [31]. In the context of circular economy principles, design innovations focus on life cycle assessments and renewable energy integration, fostering manufacturing processes that cut energy use by promoting resource-efficient workflows and sustainable material choices [32]. Overall, these design strategies contribute to broader efficiency gains, as evidenced by the need to economize inputs and maximize outputs in construction manufacturing, potentially bridging productivity gaps through better-planned processes [33].

• DfMA and BIM for Sustainable Infrastructure Construction

Integrating DfMA with BIM extends beyond buildings to sustainable infrastructure construction, where it optimizes complex projects for durability, minimal environmental impact, and long-term efficiency. This approach addresses infrastructure-specific challenges, such as large-scale assembly and site constraints, by leveraging BIM for parametric modeling that incorporates DfMA guidelines, resulting in reduced construction timelines and enhanced resource utilization [7]. For instance, ontology-based frameworks ensure prefabricated infrastructure components meet sustainability criteria, reducing material overuse and facilitating modular designs that lower lifecycle emissions [6]. In practice, this integration has demonstrated carbon reduction synergies through life cycle assessments, linking digital twinning and automation to achieve lower emissions in infrastructure projects [7]. Parametric DfMA designs further support infrastructure by enabling adaptable, assembly-oriented planning that minimizes on-site disruptions and promotes circular economy principles, such as component reuse [25]. These methods align with broader sustainability goals, as seen in evaluations showing significant emission reductions in global construction sectors through optimized manufacturing [14].

• Integration of DfMA and BIM for Reductions in On-Site Labor, Materials, Waste, and Carbon Emissions

The integration of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) with Building Information Modeling (BIM) represents a transformative approach to reducing on-site labor, material consumption, waste generation, and carbon emissions in building and infrastructure projects. DfMA-oriented parametric design facilitates the creation of prefabricated components that are optimized for assembly, minimizing on-site labor through off-site fabrication and enabling precise material allocation and waste reduction [25].

When combined with BIM, this integration supports algorithmic and parametric collaboration, allowing stakeholders to simulate assembly processes, detect conflicts early, and customize designs while adhering to manufacturing constraints, thereby reducing rework and associated emissions [10]. Studies demonstrate that BIM and ontology-based DfMA frameworks standardize requirements for prefabricated components, resolving design-manufacturing discrepancies and achieving material savings alongside emission reductions [6]. In modular home construction, applying DfMA principles has led to reduction in design phase duration and a decrease in production errors, directly translating to lower waste and carbon footprints [34]. Overall, these synergies contribute to carbon emission reductions compared to traditional methods, as evidenced by lower embodied carbon in prefabricated structures [14]. Benefit evaluations further confirm that such strategies enhance energy-saving and emission-reduction outcomes, with rough set theory analyses indicating improvements in ecological efficiency [35].

• Prefabrication Enhancing Carbon Reduction and Infrastructure Sustainability

Prefabrication, underpinned by DfMA principles, significantly enhances carbon reduction and the overall sustainability of infrastructure by shifting production to controlled environments that optimize energy use and minimize waste. Modular construction offers advantages such as reduced construction time and lower environmental impacts, including decreased carbon emissions through efficient material handling and recycling, though challenges like transportation logistics must be managed [30]. In infrastructure contexts, prefabrication reduces on-site labor and emissions particularly in timber-based systems [36]. Circular economy analyses reveal that prefabrication supports recycling and waste management, contributing to energy efficiency and emission reductions across the building lifecycle [32]. For China’s construction industry, prefabrication has been linked to improved energy consumption efficiency in carbon-intensive processes [28]. Ultimately, these prefabrication strategies advance climate neutrality by integrating sustainable materials and processes, as evidenced by benefit evaluations showing ecological gains from emission-reduction initiatives [35].

Robot-assisted assembly uses robots to automate or augment the process of joining components, improving efficiency, accuracy, and flexibility in the construction industry (Figure 4). BIM serves as the central digital platform, enabling parametric, algorithmic, and AI-driven generative design together with seamless CAD/CAM workflows that feed directly into manufacturing. These digital models then drive robot-assisted prefabrication, where CNC machining, mass customization of timber components, and low-waste practices replace traditional on-site cutting and fitting. The final stage is robot-assisted assembly, emphasizing human–robot collaboration and augmented reality guidance to improve precision and safety on site. Overall, the diagram shows a clear shift from a linear, document-based process to an iterative, data-driven pipeline where early design decisions are optimized for robotic manufacturing and assembly, significantly increasing efficiency and reducing waste in timber construction. This can involve fully automated assembly lines or collaborative systems where robots assist human workers by holding parts, delivering tools, or handling repetitive tasks [37]. Advances in technology allow robots to perform increasingly complex and precise assembly operations, while collaborative robots (cobots) can work alongside humans for more adaptable and ergonomic workflows [38,39,40].

The illustrated framework (Figure 4) presents a clear, phased integration of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) principles into the conventional building design process, with a particular focus on modern wood construction. The traditional design sequence (Definition → Feasibility Study → Concept → Building Regulations Approval → Detailed Design) remains the backbone, but the framework overlays advanced digital and robotic DfMA tools at specific stages to shift the process from site-intensive craft to controlled off-site fabrication and assembly.

DfMA enters primarily after concept design and becomes fully active during detailed design. BIM serves as the central information backbone, while parametric, algorithmic, and AI-supported generative design tools allow rapid iteration of structurally efficient and materially optimized wood components. These digital models feed directly into CAD/CAM pipelines, ensuring that every element is designed with its exact manufacturing method in mind from the earliest possible moment.

The framework then branches into robot-assisted prefabrication as the physical realization of the digital model. CNC wood-processing technologies (5-axis milling, robotic timber joining, automated glulam and CLT production) enable mass customization of components with high precision and minimal material waste. Because the design has already considered manufacturing constraints, components arrive on site pre-cut, pre-drilled, and often pre-assembled into larger modules, dramatically reducing construction time and site waste.

Finally, the process flows into robot-assisted assembly, where human operators collaborate with robotic arms and augmented-reality guidance systems for accurate placement of heavy or complex timber elements. This stage preserves the flexibility needed for final adjustments while leveraging automation for safety, speed, and quality control.

Overall, the framework reconfigures the entire building delivery pipeline around early digital integration and off-site robotic production, turning wood construction into a highly repeatable, customizable, and low-waste industrial process while still fitting within established design and regulatory stages.

• Life Cycle Stages in Timber Construction: Enhancing Energy Efficiency and Climate Neutrality

In the pursuit of design optimization within timber construction, understanding the full life cycle of building structural systems is essential for advancing energy efficiency and achieving climate neutrality in the built environment. This section delineates the key stages of the life cycle, integrating principles of sustainability, energy efficiency, technological integration (e.g., Building Information Modeling or BIM), performance reliability, structural health monitoring (SHM), deterioration management, and optimized resource allocation. These stages form a cyclical process that minimizes environmental impact through eco-efficiency, reparability, and deconstructability. To visualize this, Figure 5 presents a diagram illustrating the life cycle stages as a sequential yet interconnected loop, with arrows indicating progression and feedback loops for refurbishment and material reuse. Key aspects are overlaid as cross-cutting themes influencing each stage with certain energy saving potentials.

• Concept Design

The concept design stage involves conceptualizing the timber-based project and developing structural designs that align with functional requirements, environmental assessments, and sustainability goals. This phase emphasizes incorporating eco-efficiency and deconstructability from the outset, utilizing tools like BIM to simulate life cycle performance and optimize energy use. Early integration of life cycle assessment (LCA) enables decision-making that reduces embodied carbon and enhances climate neutrality, as demonstrated in systematic reviews of timber’s role in mitigating climate change. For instance, applying LCA in initial design phases supports the selection of mass timber elements that minimize environmental impacts while ensuring structural reliability.

2.

Manufacturing and Prefabrication

Manufacturing and prefabrication entail producing timber structural elements, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) or glulam, according to design specifications. This stage focuses on energy-efficient production processes that conserve raw materials and reduce waste, aligning with sustainability principles. Comparative LCAs reveal that timber manufacturing exhibits lower embodied energy compared to concrete or steel alternatives, contributing to overall energy savings and climate neutrality. Technological integration, including BIM, enhances precision in prefabrication, optimizing resource allocation and minimizing on-site assembly impacts.

3.

Construction and Assembly

During construction and assembly, prefabricated timber components are erected on-site, adhering to design specifications. This phase prioritizes efficient assembly techniques to reduce energy consumption and construction time, incorporating sustainability through reparable connections and minimal waste generation. Studies on mass timber construction highlight how optimized assembly processes lower the carbon footprint, supporting energy efficiency across the life cycle. Performance reliability is ensured through quality controls, while BIM facilitates coordination to prevent errors that could lead to future deterioration.

4.

Operation and Maintenance

The operation and maintenance stage encompasses the in-use period of the timber structure, involving regular inspections, SHM, and upkeep to maintain safety and functionality. Energy efficiency is achieved through proactive management of deterioration factors like moisture-induced decay or fatigue, extending service life and reducing operational energy demands. Reviews of wood building energy efficiency underscore the importance of monitoring techniques to optimize performance and allocate resources effectively. SHM systems, such as sensor networks, provide data for informed maintenance decisions, ensuring durability and reliability.

5.

Refurbishment/Replacement

Refurbishment or replacement involves upgrades, repairs, or substitutions to extend the structure’s life or enhance its functionality, guided by sustainability and energy efficiency goals. This stage leverages deconstructability for selective component replacement, minimizing waste and resource use. LCA-based evaluations of refurbishment scenarios demonstrate net climate benefits over new construction, particularly in historic timber contexts where energy-efficient interventions preserve reliability while managing deterioration. Optimized resource allocation ensures cost-effective renewals, integrating technology for precise assessments.

6.

Deconstruction and End-of-Life

The deconstruction and end-of-life stage involves dismantling the structure and managing materials for reuse, recycling, or disposal, emphasizing circularity to achieve near-zero waste [41]. Sustainability principles like design for disassembly (DfD) facilitate efficient material recovery, reducing environmental impact and supporting climate neutrality [42]. Literature on timber deconstruction highlights strategies for repurposing elements, optimizing end-of-life processes to conserve energy and raw materials. This phase closes the loop, feeding recovered resources back into conception, with SHM data informing deconstruction planning for maximal efficiency [43].

2.1.4. Parametric Design of Engineered Wood Construction

Complementing BIM integration, parametric design computer-aided BIM (Grasshopper, Dynamo, Param-O) systems combined with DfMA principles enable the automatic generation of detailed architectural drawings and sections for prefabricated structures [16]. This methodology leverages software to standardize component creation, ensuring designs are optimized for manufacturing and assembly processes. By automating the production of detailed plans, this approach reduces manual effort, minimizes errors, and enhances decision-making efficiency among stakeholders. For instance, in the case of the Unidad Prototipo de Vivienda de Emergencia (UPVE), computer-aided DfMA was used to analyze material recycling through Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), demonstrating its potential to reduce environmental impact [16]. This methodology supports sustainable construction by ensuring designs are both cost-effective and environmentally friendly, aligning with the goals of quick and efficient prefabricated construction.

Parametric design oriented toward DfMA is crucial for prefabricated buildings, including timber ones. Yuan et al. [25] introduce a DFMA-BIM process for parametric optimization, forming specialized design teams. Architecturally, it boosts accuracy for esthetic prefabrication. Structurally, family templates optimize precast components for assembly. In wood technology, the methodology applies to timber prefabrication, emphasizing continuous refinement for sustainable structures [25].

2.1.5. Environmental Benefits of DfMA

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) is a systematic approach that integrates manufacturing and assembly considerations into the early stages of product design to optimize processes, reduce costs, and enhance quality. By aligning design with production capabilities, DfMA promotes efficiency and sustainability, making it a valuable tool for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs, established in 2015, address global challenges like poverty, inequality, climate change, and environmental degradation. DfMA’s benefits—improved manufacturing and assembly processes, reduced material waste, energy efficiency, recyclability, and lifecycle adaptability—align with multiple SDGs, fostering sustainable industrial practices and minimizing environmental impact.

Trees naturally absorb carbon dioxide during growth, storing approximately half their weight as carbon. This biogenic carbon remains sequestered within engineered wood products throughout their building lifetime, creating a long-term carbon storage system. Engineered wood products optimize timber utilization through innovative design and manufacturing processes. Unlike solid hardwood construction requiring thick planks, engineered wood utilizes thin veneers over sustainable substrates, producing significantly more square footage from the same timber volume. This efficiency reduces demand for virgin timber while incorporating recycled materials and wood fibers, minimizing waste and preserving natural forests.

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) is a systematic design methodology that integrates manufacturing and assembly considerations into the early stages of product development. This approach enhances production efficiency and product quality while significantly contributing to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, DfMA principles align with SDGs focused on sustainable industrialization, responsible consumption and production, and access to clean energy through benefits such as process optimization, reduced material waste, energy efficiency, recyclability, and lifecycle adaptability. The following table summarizes how DfMA principles contribute to the SDGs (

Table 2. Environmental benefits of DfMA.

DfMA Benefit	Related SDG	Details
Improvement and optimization of processes	SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure	Optimizes manufacturing and assembly, leading to efficient resource use and sustainable industrialization.
Reduced Material Waste	SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production	Minimizes waste through efficient design and manufacturing processes.
Energy Efficiency	SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy	Reduces energy consumption in production and throughout the prefabricated wooden elements lifecycle.
Recyclability	SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production	Facilitates recycling by designing products that are easy to disassemble and made from recyclable materials.
Lifecycle Adaptability	SDG 9 and SDG 12	Supports SDG 9 by fostering innovation in product design and SDG 12 by extending prefabricated wooden structure life, reducing resource use and waste.

).

Key benefits of integration of DfMA methodologies in architectural and structural engineering of wooden structures include:

• Shorter Construction Periods and Lower Expenses

Off-site fabrication of building elements through DfMA significantly accelerates the building process. The light weight of CLT simplifies transportation and on-site handling, cutting down on shipping expenses and the requirement for large-scale machinery. Moreover, quick installation minimizes labor expenses while maintaining high construction standards.

2.

Boosted Environmental Sustainability

DfMA enhances manufacturing, assembly, and construction technology processes by simplifying designs, reducing part counts, and minimizing production complexities. This optimization directly supports SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure by promoting sustainable industrialization and resilient infrastructure. For example, streamlining part geometries can accelerate production cycles and reduce resource use, fostering efficient industrial practices. Additionally, these improvements contribute to SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth by boosting productivity, lowering costs, and creating job opportunities in manufacturing sectors. Scientifically, optimized processes reduce energy inputs and material losses, aligning with sustainable development principles.

3.

Promoting Recyclability for a Circular Economy

Recyclability, facilitated by DfMA, aligns with SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production by enabling easier disassembly and material recovery. Designs that use fasteners instead of adhesives, for example, allow components to be separated for recycling, supporting a circular economy. This also benefits SDG 14: Life Below Water and SDG 15: Life on Land by reducing waste that pollutes ecosystems [19,44]. Scientifically, recyclable designs decrease landfill reliance and preserve biodiversity, as less waste enters oceans and terrestrial habitats, making DfMA a key enabler of environmental protection.

As renewable materials, CLT and GLT offer a smaller ecological footprint than conventional options such as steel or concrete [45,46,47,48,49]. DfMA amplifies this by streamlining material usage and minimizing waste via accurate cutting and assembly. Timber’s inherent ability to sequester carbon means that structures built predominantly from it can act as extended carbon sinks, providing additional ecological advantages.

4.

Reducing Material Waste for Responsible Production

By minimizing material usage and waste generation, DfMA advances SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. Designs that optimize material layouts—such as nesting parts efficiently or leveraging additive manufacturing—reduce scrap and conserve resources. This efficiency decreases the environmental burden of material extraction and disposal. Furthermore, reduced waste supports SDG 13: Climate Action by lowering greenhouse gas emissions tied to production and waste management. Studies show that material waste in manufacturing can account for significant carbon footprints, making DfMA’s waste-reduction focus a critical sustainability lever.

5.

Enhancing Energy Efficiency for Clean Energy and Climate Goals

DfMA’s emphasis on energy-efficient design contributes to SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. Simplified manufacturing and assembly processes, such as reducing reliance on energy-intensive machinery or using lightweight materials, lower energy consumption [50,51]. For instance, fewer assembly steps can decrease electricity use in production facilities. This energy efficiency also supports SDG 13: Climate Action by reducing carbon emissions. Research indicates that energy optimization in manufacturing can significantly cut operational emissions, positioning DfMA as a practical approach to achieving climate and energy sustainability targets.

In summary, DfMA principles provide a scientific foundation for achieving SDGs by optimizing production, reducing environmental impact, and promoting innovation. Through process improvements, waste reduction, energy efficiency, recyclability, and lifecycle adaptability, DfMA bridges design and sustainability, offering actionable pathways to a more equitable and resilient future.

6.

Enabling Lifecycle Adaptability for Sustainable Innovation

Lifecycle adaptability in DfMA extends product lifespans through modular or upgradable designs, supporting SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. For instance, replaceable components reduce the need for entirely new products, conserving resources and minimizing waste. This adaptability also aligns with SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure by encouraging innovative, flexible solutions that evolve with technological or user needs. Data suggests that extending product life cycles can significantly lower resource depletion rates, reinforcing DfMA’s role in sustainable design and industrial progress.

• Superior Quality Assurance;
• Heightened Safety and On-Site Productivity;
• Expanded Design Versatility.

The improvement and optimization of manufacturing, assembly, and construction processes is a core advantage of DfMA. By simplifying product designs and reducing the number of components, DfMA minimizes production complexity, leading to more efficient resource utilization [24]. This aligns with SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure, which promotes sustainable and resilient industrialization. For instance, DfMA encourages the use of manufacturing techniques that require fewer resources, thereby reducing the environmental impact of industrial activities and fostering innovation in production methods [52].

DfMA also significantly reduces material waste through strategic design choices. Techniques such as additive manufacturing, often enabled by DfMA, allow for the creation of complex geometries with minimal excess material. Moreover, designing products for modularity and ease of disassembly enhances their recyclability and reusability at the end of their lifecycle. These practices support SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production, which aims to reduce waste generation and promote sustainable resource use through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse [53].

Energy efficiency is another critical contribution of DfMA. By incorporating energy considerations into the design phase, products can be engineered to consume less energy during manufacturing and operation. This supports SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy, which seeks to ensure access to sustainable and modern energy. For example, designing components that can be produced using low-energy processes or that improve the energy efficiency of the final product reduces overall energy demand and greenhouse gas emissions.

Recyclability is a fundamental aspect of DfMA, promoting the design of products that can be easily disassembled and made from recyclable materials. This facilitates material recovery and reuse, advancing a circular economy. Such efforts are integral to SDG 12, contributing to sustainable management and efficient use of natural resources by minimizing landfill waste and encouraging recycling [53,54,55].

Lastly, lifecycle adaptability enhances product sustainability by incorporating modularity and upgradeability into designs. This allows products to be modified, upgraded, or repurposed, extending their useful life and reducing the need for new resources. This dual benefit supports SDG 9 by fostering innovation in product design and SDG 12 by promoting sustainable consumption patterns.

2.1.6. MdFA Principles in Wood Engineering

The review of the selected papers allowed us to analyze basic principles defined as MdFA sub-processes. These DfMA benchmarks serve as effective optimization principles for designing wooden structures, balancing customization with efficiency in engineered wood construction. They align with established DfMA guidelines that emphasize reducing complexity while enhancing manufacturability, assembly, and sustainability in timber projects, as well as determining the feasibility of constructing non-standard wooden structures [56]. The sub-processes that have been taken into consideration are as follows:

• Design Simplification: Streamlines component geometries and connections to minimize fabrication errors and material waste, crucial for non-standard forms where complexity can escalate costs.
• Standardization: Introduces repeatable elements like joint types or dimensions amid variability, enabling economies of scale and easier quality control in timber production.
• Modularization: Divides structures into prefabricated units for off-site assembly, improving logistics and reducing on-site time for intricate, non-standard designs.
• Production and Process Optimization: Refines workflows through automation and supply chain integration, boosting overall efficiency and adaptability in realizing custom timber builds.

In the context of the article, identifying these in Stage 2 likely involves case studies or prototypes to demonstrate their practical impact on non-standard realizations.

2.2. Stage 2—Buildings Review

This stage involves studying modern wooden buildings to evaluate whether the benchmarks identified in Stage 1 are applicable in practice. The selection of buildings for this analysis was based on (i) thematic scope: non-standard engineered wood structures from 2011 and 2024. Out of a review of 48 engineered wood buildings, 21 exemplary cases were chosen. These examples include public utility buildings with various functions located in Australia, Asia, Europe and North America.

Table 3. Non-standard engineered wood structures selected for analysis.

	Project Name	Year	Architect	Manufacturing Company
1.	Research Pavilion at University of Stuttgart, Germany	2012	University of Stuttgart Institutes ICD/ITKE	Ochs GmbH, Kirchberg, Germany
2.	Church Pavilion “Himmelgrün”, Germany	2015	Bayer
3.	Temporary School Mobi:Space, Trier, Germany	2018	GbR Architekten
4.	Kita Mikado daycare center, Darmstadt, Germany	2020	Ramona Buxbaum Architekten
5.	Sunderland Aquatic Centre, UK	2011	RedBoxDesignGroup Architects	Wiehag, Altheim, Austria
6.	Ascent Tower, Milwaukee, USA	2022	Korb + Associates Architects
7.	Gaia Building at NTU, Singapore	2022	Toyo Ito & Associates
8.	Garbe Solid Timber Hall, Straubing-Sand, Germany	2024	Köster GmbH (structural); WIEHAG (timber design)
9.	Fondation Louis Vuitton Museum, Paris, France	2014	Frank Gehry	Hess Timber, Kleinheubach, Germany
10.	Bunjil Place, Casey, Australia	2018	Francis-Jones Morehen Thorp (FJMT)
11.	Wooden Sphere Steinberg am See	2019	Hess Timber
12.	Boola Katitjin, Murdoch University	2023	Lyons, Silver Thomas Hanley
13.	The Den, Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester, UK	2019	Haworth Tompkins	Xylotek, Bristol, UK
14.	ABBA Arena, London, UK	2022	Stufish Entertainment Architects
15.	Osnaburgh Pavilions, Regents Place, London, UK	2022	Nex Architecture
16.	Rafter Walk—Canada Water Boardwalk, London, UK	2024	Asif Khan MBE
17.	Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Clubhouse, South Korea	2010	Shigeru Ban	Blumer Lehmann, Gossau, Switzerland
18.	Maggie’s Centre, Manchester, UK	2016	Foster + Partners
19.	Cambridge Mosque, UK	2019	Marks Barfield Architects
20.	Maggie’s Centre, Leeds, UK	2020	Heatherwick Studio
21.	Wisdome Stockholm, Sweden	2023	Elding Oscarson

presents a list of selected buildings whose timber structures were constructed by European companies specializing in prefabricated timber structures: Ochs GmbH (Kirchberg, Germany), Wiehag (Altheim, Austria), Hess Timber (Kleinheubach, Germany), Xylotek (Bristol, United Kingdom), Blumer Lehmann (Gossau, Switzerland). Selected building projects have been distinguished and up-to-date examples completed by leading manufacturing companies dealing with engineered wood in the years 2010–2024.

3. Results

Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) has emerged as a transformative approach in the construction industry, particularly for prefabricated construction, aiming to enhance sustainability, reduce construction time, and lower costs. By optimizing the design of buildings and their components for efficient off-site manufacturing and on-site assembly, DfMA addresses the industry’s challenges of low productivity and environmental impact.

3.1. Results of Stage 1—Literature Review

DfMA methodologies have evolved significantly since their inception in the manufacturing sector over 50 years ago, gaining traction in the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry to address persistent challenges like low productivity and inefficiencies in traditional onsite processes [57]. In the context of engineered wood construction, particularly non-standard timber structures, DfMA promotes early integration of manufacturing and assembly considerations into design, fostering modularization, standardization, and prefabrication to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and customization [58]. A holistic review of recent literature reveals growing research interest, with publications surging in the last decade, especially in journals like Automation in Construction and Buildings [59,60,61,62,63]. This section examines the state of DfMA research, emphasizing architectural, structural, and wood technology aspects, drawing on key studies to inform its application in realizing complex timber structures.

Current trends in DfMA research underscore its role in prefabricated construction, where it reduces part counts, assembly times, and manufacturing cycles, as evidenced by industry surveys [5]. Architecturally, DfMA enables flexible, customized designs through parametric modeling and digital tools, allowing for non-standard forms that align with esthetic and functional requirements. Structurally, it optimizes load-bearing elements by minimizing components and ensuring assembly feasibility, while in wood technology, it supports sustainable material use, such as in mass timber systems, by integrating fabrication constraints early to reduce waste and enhance durability. For instance, DfMA’s application in offsite construction (OSC) projects, including timber-based ones, addresses challenges like design standardization and supplier delays through multidisciplinary collaboration [64].

The Institute for Computational Design and Construction (ICD) and Institute of Building Structures and Structural Design (ITKE) at the University of Stuttgart pioneer biomimetic approaches, such as robotic fabrication of wood plate morphologies and self-shaping systems like HygroShape. Their co-design methods for multi-storey timber buildings emphasize DfMA through digital workflows and material-efficient techniques like coreless filament winding, enhancing sustainability and scalability [65,66,67,68].

At École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), the Laboratory for Timber Constructions (IBOIS) focuses on integral mechanical attachments and parametric design for reciprocal frames. Their work on woodworking joints and through-tenon assemblies leverages natural wood properties for DfMA, facilitating efficient fabrication of non-standard elements and robotic assembly [69,70,71].

ETH Zurich’s Arch_Tec_Lab, including Gramazio Kohler Research, advances computational and robotic fabrication for complex timber forms, exemplified by the Sequential Roof and mono-material walls. DfMA integration via digital prefabrication and tools like COMPAS FAB supports adaptive joining and reclaimed material use, as seen in innovative roof structures [72,73,74,75].

Other centers, such as the Centre for Information Technology and Architecture (CITA) at the Royal Danish Academy, emphasize hybrid systems and modular components for scalable assembly [76,77,78]. UCL’s Bartlett School integrates parametric modeling for offsite DfMA [79,80], while Oregon’s TallWood Design Institute tests seismic-resistant prefabrication [81]. Aalto University’s Wood Program promotes adaptability with salvaged timber [82,83,84]. Aarhus’ Emerging Technologies Group develops on-site robotics like Parawood [85], and Cambridge’s Centre for Natural Material Innovation explores flexible wooden walls and zero-carbon multi-storey designs [86,87].

Qi and Costin propose a BIM and ontology-based DfMA framework for prefabricated components, validated in a hotel case study involving timber floors [6]. Architecturally, it standardizes stakeholder inputs for appearance and layout, resolving conflicts via automated checks. Structurally, parameters like column height and wall thickness are evaluated for strength and durability. In wood technology, the framework adapts materials—e.g., switching from wood to tile for manufacturability—promoting interoperability in timber prefabrication and reducing errors in modular assembly. These findings reveal a convergence on digital tools and sustainability, bridging design innovation with practical manufacturing. However, challenges in standardization and scalability persist, suggesting future research on AI-driven optimization to fully realize DfMA’s potential in non-standard timber applications.

Client engagement in OSC is supported by integrated BIM-DfMA frameworks. Bakhshi et al. (2022) develop a parametric and algorithmic approach using Revit and Dynamo, enabling mass customization [10]. Architecturally, it incorporates client preferences while maintaining tolerances. Structurally, early DfMA principles minimize assembly issues in prefabricated buildings. Though not timber-specific, the methods extend to wood technology in OSC (Offsite Construction Technologies), facilitating tailored prefabricated timber modules with reduced production challenges.

Future directions emphasize digital technologies like AI, IoT, and machine learning for DfMA advancement [34]. In architectural design, this could enable generative tools for non-standard timber forms. Structurally, AI-driven optimization may enhance timber joint performance. For wood technology, research calls for case studies on collaborative BIM workflows in MTC, integrating circular economy principles for material recycling [22]. Gaps include limited ontology coverage in frameworks and nascent machine learning in DfAM, underscoring the need for holistic lifecycle assessments and regulatory guidelines to fully realize DfMA in non-standard timber structures [11].

In the application of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) methodologies to non-standard timber structures, prefabrication efficiency is paramount for realizing complex geometries while minimizing costs, waste, and construction timelines [8]. Engineered wood products, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), glued laminated timber (glulam), and laminated veneer lumber (LVL), lend themselves well to off-site fabrication due to their dimensional stability and machinability. However, non-standard designs—characterized by irregular forms, curved elements, or site-specific adaptations—pose challenges that DfMA addresses through targeted principles. The following evaluation examines how design simplification, standardization, modularization, and production and process optimization contribute to increased efficiency in prefabrication, drawing on established practices in timber engineering. Efficiency is assessed in terms of reduced material waste, accelerated production cycles, improved quality control, and lower overall costs.

Overall, DfMA research is maturing, with strong emphasis on BIM integration and digital tools to support sustainable, efficient timber construction [6]. However, further studies on timber-specific applications, particularly for non-standard designs, are essential to bridge gaps in wood technology and structural performance.

Table 4. Research on DdMA. Key focus and contributions.

Key Focus and Contributions on DfMA of Timber Structures	Affiliation
•  Biomimetic and computational design for non-standard timber structures, •  Testing and evaluating of timber structures (real-life research pavilions), •  Robotic fabrication of wood plate morphologies, •  Self-shaping wood systems. •  Integration of DfMA through co-design methods for multi-storey timber buildings, digital fabrication, and innovative material-efficient techniques.	ICD)/ITKE (University of Stuttgart, Germany)
•  Computational design and robotic fabrication for non-standard timber structures, such as mono-material wood walls using slit elements for insulation without adhesives or metals. •  Integration of DfMA through digital prefabrication, adaptive joining techniques for reclaimed materials, and tools like COMPAS FAB for robotic planning in timber assembly.	Gramazio Kohler Research (ETH Zurich, Switzerland)
•  Computational architecture and robotic processes for complex, non-standard timber forms, including hybrid material systems and performative structures. Research on DfMA processes of modular, digitally fabricated timber components that support scalable assembly and material efficiency.	Centre for Information Technology and Architecture (CITA, Royal Danish Academy, Denmark)
•  Conducts research on digital-enabled DfMA in offsite construction, with case studies in prefabricated timber structures using robotic fabrication and parametric modeling (e.g., NURBS in Rhino). Emphasizes modularity, standardized interfaces, and process alignment for non-standard designs to improve efficiency and reduce complexity in timber projects.	Bartlett School of Sustainable Construction (The Bartlett Faculty of the Built Environment UCL, UK)
•  Development and testing of non-standard structural timber innovations with CNC, robotic equipment, and CLT presses •  Research of advanced wood products, seismic performance, and DfMA-oriented prefabrication to advance mass timber assembly in sustainable building systems.	TallWood Design Institute (Collaborative between Oregon State University and University of Oregon, USA)
•  Interdisciplinary hub for wood architecture, structural engineering, and material science, focusing on industrial building with timber. Projects explore non-standard designs through salvaged wood reuse, surface treatments, and Design for Adaptability (closely related to DfMA), promoting holistic prefabrication and assembly strategies for durable, innovative structures.	Wood Program (Department of Architecture, Aalto University, Finland)
•  Research on on-site parametric robotic fabrication for timber and developing semi-autonomous systems for non-standard house structures. •  DfMA of transportable robotic units, AI-interpreted hand-drawn instructions, and prototypes that integrate design, fabrication, and assembly for efficient, carpenter-friendly processes.	Emerging Technologies and Design Research Group (Aarhus School of Architecture, Denmark)
•  Cross-disciplinary research on plant-based materials for zero-carbon architecture, including innovative multi-storey timber structures. •  Fluid dynamics, engineering, and design integration to enable DfMA in non-standard forms, •  Research on transformation of building practices with sustainable, high-performance timber systems.	Centre for Natural Material Innovation (University of Cambridge, UK)

presents evaluation on key research centers, highlighting their contributions to innovative timber engineering, material optimization, and assembly processes. Design for Manufacture and Assembly methodologies are pivotal in advancing non-standard timber structures, enabling efficient prefabrication, reduced waste, and integration of computational design with robotic fabrication [64,88,89].

3.1.1. Design Simplification

Simplifying joint designs in CLT panels—e.g., favoring standardized dovetail or finger joints over custom interlocking mechanisms—can reduce CNC programming complexity and material usage, as evidenced in prefabricated timber projects [4]. This approach enhances efficiency by shortening lead times in the factory setting, where simplified designs allow for batch processing and minimize setup changes between components. In non-standard timber structures, where esthetic or structural demands might initially favor complexity, iterative digital modeling (e.g., via BIM software) enables designers to balance form with manufacturability, resulting in fewer prototypes and less rework. Overall, design simplification boosts prefabrication efficiency by promoting waste reduction and operational fluidity, with studies showing improvements in structural efficiency and material conservation in timber buildings.

Design simplification under DfMA involves streamlining component geometries, reducing the number of unique parts, and eliminating unnecessary features to facilitate easier manufacturing and assembly. In the context of engineered wood prefabrication for non-standard structures, this principle mitigates the inherent complexities of bespoke designs, such as variable cross-sections or intricate joinery, which can otherwise lead to prolonged machining times and higher error rates. Design simplification provides numerous optimizations including:

• Reduced Material Waste: Simplified designs minimize off-cuts and excess material use during CNC fabrication.
• Energy Efficiency: Less complex components require less energy for machining and assembly.
• Recyclability: Simplified wooden parts are easier to disassemble and recycle, supporting a circular economy.

3.1.2. Standardization

In prefabrication, standardizing panel sizes for CLT or glulam beams—such as adhering to modular grid systems (e.g., 1.2 m × 3 m panels)—facilitates inventory management and reduces custom fabrication needs, cutting production costs through bulk material procurement and repetitive machining processes [90]. For non-standard structures, standardization can be applied selectively; for example, internal framing elements can follow standard profiles while external facades accommodate curvature through adaptive interfaces. This not only accelerates factory throughput by minimizing tool changes but also enhances supply chain reliability, as standardized components are more readily sourced from certified engineered wood suppliers. Evidence from mass timber applications indicates that standardization, when integrated with DfMA, simplifies assembly logistics and reduces on-site adjustments, leading to overall efficiency gains in time and resource utilization [9].

Standardization emphasizes the use of uniform dimensions, materials, and connection systems across components, even within non-standard overall architectures. This principle counters the variability typical in custom timber structures by establishing reusable templates, thereby enabling economies of scale in engineered wood production [91]. Standardization optimizes manufacturing and assembly processes by:

• Reduced Material Waste: Standardized components optimize material use, minimizing waste in production.
• Energy Efficiency: Mass production of standard parts reduces energy-intensive custom fabrication.
• Lifecycle Adaptability: Standardized wooden components can be reused or repurposed in other projects, extending material lifecycle.

3.1.3. Modularization

By prefabricating modules in controlled factory environments, efficiency is enhanced through parallel production streams, which can shorten project timelines compared to traditional site-built methods [92]. In engineered wood contexts, modular CLT or glulam elements allow for pre-installation of services (e.g., HVAC integration) and quality testing prior to transport, reducing defects and waste associated with field modifications. For non-standard designs, modularization supports scalability; digital twins and parametric design tools enable customization within modular frameworks, ensuring that unique forms are achieved without sacrificing prefabrication speed [93]. Repetition inherent in modular approaches further optimizes material use and labor, as seen in panelized wall systems where DfMA-driven modularity minimizes construction waste and streamlines logistics [94]. Ultimately, this principle elevates prefabrication efficiency by shifting labor-intensive tasks off-site, improving safety, and enabling just-in-time delivery [95].

Modularization breaks down the structure into discrete, prefabricated units or modules that can be manufactured off-site and assembled with minimal on-site intervention. This DfMA principle is particularly effective for engineered wood in non-standard timber projects, where modules can encapsulate complex sub-assemblies, such as curved roof sections or volumetric units. Key benefits include:

• Reduced Material Waste: Modular units are prefabricated with minimal on-site cutting, reducing waste.
• Energy Efficiency: Off-site fabrication and compact transport of modules lower energy use compared to traditional construction.
• Lifecycle Adaptability: Modular wooden systems allow disassembly and reconfiguration, reducing demolition waste and supporting reuse.

3.1.4. Production and Process Optimization

Optimizing processes in CLT production lines, for example, involves sequencing operations to minimize idle time and material handling, potentially increasing factory efficiency by 30–40% via reduced cycle times and error rates. In non-standard structures, where variability demands flexible setups, process optimization leverages simulation software to predict and mitigate issues, such as optimizing cut patterns to reduce wood waste from irregular shapes. Automation in glulam bending or laminating processes further enhances consistency, lowering labor costs and environmental impact through precise resource allocation. Case studies in timber-based systems demonstrate that DfMA-optimized processes lead to faster prototyping and scalable production, with benefits extending to sustainability via minimized energy use in factories [59]. This principle thus drives comprehensive efficiency improvements, ensuring that prefabrication aligns with the demands of innovative, non-standard timber architectures [34].

Production and process optimization focuses on refining manufacturing workflows through automation, lean principles, and advanced technologies to maximize throughput and precision in engineered wood prefabrication [96]. This encompasses the integration of CNC milling, robotic assembly, and real-time quality monitoring to address bottlenecks in non-standard timber fabrication. Production and Process Optimization translates into numerous benefits including:

• Reduced Material Waste: Optimized CNC cutting patterns minimize timber waste.
• Energy Efficiency: Automated CNC processes reduce energy consumption compared to manual fabrication.
• Recyclability: High-precision components ensure quality, reducing rework and enabling easier disassembly for recycling.

3.2. Results of Stage 2—Buildings Review

This part examines modern instances of eco-friendly timber construction, emphasizing creative strategies for minimizing carbon footprints during both building and usage phases. By reviewing diverse initiatives in Europe and North America, it demonstrates how architects and designers are employing sustainable resources, state-of-the-art building methods, and cooperative planning approaches to craft unique wooden buildings that are ecologically mindful and versatile for evolving demands. These examples underscore the ability of timber architecture to not only fulfill but surpass environmental targets, establishing innovative benchmarks for the field.

Table 5. Engineered wood construction material/technology in structures selected for analysis.

Leading Construction Material/Technology	Count
Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) Used in panel systems, walls, floors, and modular construction.	10
Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) Used in beams, frames, trusses, and load-bearing structures.	11
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) Used in shell structures, beams, CNC-milled elements, and composite shells.	9
Hybrid systems of CLT + Glulam Combining CLT panels with glulam beams for hybrid structures.	5

highlights the prevalence of glulam and CLT as dominant technologies in non-standard engineered wood architecture, with LVL used prominently where higher precision and complex shapes (like shells or CNC-milled elements) are needed. Hybrid systems leveraging the strengths of both CLT and glulam are common in complex or larger-scale projects.

From a review of 48 engineered wood buildings, 21 examples were chosen. The timeframe spans from 2011 to 2024. These examples encompass public utility buildings with various functions across Europe and North America. The comparison criteria include the structural system, area and structural span. These parameters were chosen because of their versatility in application of engineered wood structures.

Table 6. DfMA sub-process identified in case studies.

	Project Name	Engineered Wood Technology Used in the Project	1	2	3	4
1.	Research Pavilion at University of Stuttgart,	CNC-milled Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL) with innovative shell structures	bio-inspired morphology for reduced complexity	use of standard plywood and fibers	segmented timber shell	robotic fabrication and molding
2.	Church Pavilion “Himmelgrün”	Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) with prefabricated panel systems	simple elliptical form	glued-laminated beams as standard components	modular structure	efficient timber construction processes
3.	Temporary School Mobi:Space	Lightweight modular timber frame with CLT panels	cubic structure	standard modular units	modular structure	quick assembly optimization
4.	Kita Mikado daycare center	Glulam beams combined with CLT for walls and floors	re-use of elements	standardized components	modular re-used structure	optimized for assembly and re-use
5.	Sunderland Aquatic Centre	Glue-laminated timber (glulam) frames with integrated connections	simple plan layout	standard timber beams	modular roof structure	efficiency of structural system
6.	Ascent Tower	Timber frame with natural wood cladding, likely glulam and solid wood	hybrid structure	standard mass timber elements	prefab mass timber floors	offsite fabrication optimization
7.	Gaia Building at NTU	CNC-cut LVL with parametric design and shell structures	streamlined design	standard mass engineered timber	modular timber components	DFMA and sustainable processes
8.	Garbe Solid Timber Hall	Prefabricated CLT or timber panels for fast onsite assembly	simple hall design	standard timber	modular timber assembly	sustainable construction optimization
9.	Fondation Louis Vuitton	Combination of glulam beams and CLT floor/wall panels	modular design	standard glulam and steel	cladding panels	CNC production
10.	Bunjil Place	Experimental LVL shells with CNC fabrication	interlocking gridshell structure	standard glulam	timber grid shell modular	efficient timber fabrication
11.	Wooden Sphere	Heavy timber frames with glulam and hybrid engineered wood composites	simple spherical form	standard glulam	modular segments	optimized for large scale
12.	Boola Katitjin	Glulam and LVL for bending strength in curved elements	simplified structure	standard mass engineered timber	modular timber elements	efficient mass timber processes
13.	The Den	CLT walls and roof with glulam supports	lightweight design	standard timber	mobile modular auditorium	adaptable assembly
14.	ABBA Arena	Panelized CLT construction for modular, scalable design	simplified structure	standard timber	demountable modules	optimized for relocation
15.	Osnaburgh Pavilions	Hybrid timber structure combining CLT and glulam beams	simplified lattice	standard timber	prefab lattice structure	innovative timber engineering
16.	Rafter Walk	Glulam trusses with LVL secondary framing	winding simple path	standard timber	segmented boardwalk	innovative timber engineering
17.	Haesley Nine Bridges Golf Clubhouse	CLT floor and wall panels paired with glulam framing	simplified structure	timber lattice	modular structure	innovative timber engineering
18.	Maggie’s Centre	Engineered timber shell structure using LVL	simplified structure	standard timber	modular structure	sustainable and cost-effective materials
19.	Cambridge Mosque	CNC-routed LVL with parametric design	simplified structure	timber lattice	modular structure	innovative timber engineering
20.	Maggie’s Centre	Advanced prefabrication using CLT and glulam	simplified structure	standard prefab elements	modular structure	innovative timber engineering
21.	Wisdome	Cross laminated timber with sustainable insulation materials	simplified free-form	standard LVL and CLT	modular dome elements	innovative timber engineering

presents a summary of selected non-standard engineered wood structures.

The analysis of the 21 buildings in the provided table represents a qualitative “study” of real-world applications of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) sub-processes in wooden structures. These buildings, ranging from pavilions and educational facilities to museums and arenas, demonstrate how Design Simplification, Standardization, Modularization, and Production and Process Optimization are employed in the prefabrication of timber-based structural elements. In the context of energy savings, these sub-processes collectively reduce embodied energy—the total energy consumed during material extraction, processing, manufacturing, transportation, and assembly—by minimizing waste, optimizing resource use, and shifting production to controlled factory environments. The table’s results showcase a consistent application of these DFMA sub-processes across diverse wooden structures, from temporary pavilions to high-rise towers, enabling significant energy savings in prefabrication. By integrating simplification for material efficiency, standardization for scalable production, modularization for off-site advantages, and optimization for streamlined processes, these buildings reduce embodied energy in structural elements by leveraging wood’s sustainability.

3.2.1. Non-Standard Structures in Engineering Wood Construction

Key challenges include high material costs and limited knowledge of modern wooden construction techniques in the domestic market. However, opportunities exist for companies specializing in wooden structure prefabrication, including export production potential (

Table 7. SWOT Analysis of MdFA practices in wood engineering.

Strengths	Weaknesses
Structural alignment and configuration of joints Engineered wood materials: GL, LT, LVL, Mass timber CNC processing technologies	Complicated structural form resulting in manufacturing difficulties Limitations resulting from material properties and wood technology processes Economic and environmental concerns
Opportunities	Threats
Material, structural and wood technology optimization Innovative joining techniques Rapid prototyping Robot-Assisted Assembly	A field that requires professional experience in algorithmic and parametric design in advanced 3D modeling No possibility of a non-standard approach to production processes Low efficiency of investment and construction projects

). The development of tolerance recovery plans and effective communication among construction parties remains crucial for successful implementation. The research indicates that Polish companies demonstrate competence in timber construction across residential, public, and service buildings, with successful implementation of both 2D panel and 3D modular prefabrication technologies. This foundation supports continued growth and technological advancement in engineered wood construction and DfMA methodologies [97].

3.2.2. Application of Parametric Design and CNC Manufacturing in DfMA Sub-Processes

Staib et al. [98] described detailed information about materials (concrete, wood, steel, hybrid) and structural systems which depend on spatial organization of architectural forms. Architectural modeling includes the geometry of volumes and surfaces as virtual representations of building’s structure (foundation, columns, beams, slabs, walls, cores), exterior envelope (walls, roofs) and interior partition walls [98].

The objective of the present study was to collate and systematize the key comparative parameters of the analyzed prefabrication systems. To this end, the data were compiled in tabular form (

Table 8. Application of parametric design and CNC manufacturing in DfMA sub-processes.

DfMA Sub-Processes	Application in Prefabricated Wooden Construction	Application of Parametric Design and CNC Manufacturing
Design Simplification	Reduces complexity by minimizing the number of parts, simplifying geometries, and eliminating unnecessary features to streamline manufacturing and assembly	Parametric design tools generate optimized wooden components with simple, uniform geometries (e.g., standardized beams or panels). CNC technology ensures precise cutting, reducing errors and material overuse.
Standardization	Uses common components, materials, and processes to achieve economies of scale and reduce variability	Parametric tools design standardized wooden elements (e.g., cross-laminated timber panels) with consistent dimensions, fabricated by CNC for high precision and compatibility across projects.
Modularization	Designs products as independent, interchangeable modules for easy assembly and reconfiguration	Parametric design enables efficient prefabrication of modular wooden units (e.g., pre-assembled wall or floor modules) tailored for specific projects, CNC ensuring precise joints for rapid on-site assembly.
Production and Process Optimization	Streamlines manufacturing and assembly processes by aligning designs with advanced production technologies	Optimization of CNC cutting paths and assembly sequences for wooden components, CNC technology guided by parametric design, leveraging automation for precision and efficiency.

). In accordance with the protocol, both technical and organizational criteria were taken into account, as well as environmental aspects and the potential for adapting the DfMA approach. The values presented in the table are a summary of the main empirical observations and serve as a starting point for their broader interpretation in the following section of the article. The following table sets out a comparison of selected prefabricated systems in terms of their production, assembly and design characteristics.

4. Discussion

The ensuing discourse pertained to the findings of the study, which were delineated in the introduction and defined three objectives. These objectives were as follows: firstly, the potential for adapting DfMA principles to structures characterized by complex geometry; secondly, the assessment of their impact on energy and environmental efficiency; and thirdly, the identification of implementation barriers. The ensuing paragraphs offer a synopsis of the extant scientific publications on the subject, with a particular emphasis on the practical and systemic aspects of implementing DfMA in timber construction.

The findings of the analyses substantiate the mounting efficacy of the Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) methodology in the context of designing and implementing non-standard wooden structures. In particular, it has been confirmed that the implementation of DfMA principles, including modularity, standardization, the simplification of design details and the optimization of assembly processes, when employed in conjunction with contemporary digital tools, has the potential to markedly enhance production efficiency, the quality of workmanship and to reduce environmental impact. In accordance with the study’s underlying premise, the hypothesis was formulated that the implementation of the DfMA methodology in engineered wood constructions, encompassing those with non-standard geometry, will result in quantifiable benefits with regard to sustainable construction. The results obtained provide robust confirmation of the validity of this hypothesis.

The empirical data collected exhibited consistency with earlier studies conducted between 2020 and 2025 on the implementation of DfMA in prefabricated construction. As is evident in the presented projects, others have also emphasized the benefits of simplifying components, reducing the number of connections, and integrating the design process with manufacturing [12]. Furthermore, studies on the application of DfMA in steel structures have demonstrated that the utilization of this method can reduce costs by 15%, shorten lead times by 50%, and reduce material consumption by 25%. These values are analogous to the observations from this analysis [99]).

The findings of the analyses suggest that the implementation of DfMA principles in the design and prefabrication of timber structures has the potential to substantially reduce material waste, accelerate construction time, and decrease energy consumption during the construction cycle. Studies have demonstrated analogous outcomes upon the implementation of digital DfMA processes, with a reduction in material losses ranging from 15 to 25% [5]. Concurrently, studies have reported a decrease in assembly time of up to 30% [3]. In the context of the cases analyzed, the study confirms that DfMA can realistically support climate goals by reducing the carbon footprint and increasing the durability of structures.

DFMA supports energy optimization in the production of structural elements for high-rise buildings by enabling off-site prefabrication in controlled factory environments, which allows for more efficient energy use through standardized processes and reduced on-site machinery operation. By minimizing material waste—up to 51% in some cases—through optimized modular designs and precise manufacturing, DFMA lowers the embodied energy required for producing excess materials like concrete or steel components. Additionally, DFMA’s emphasis on lightweight, reusable modules, such as in mass timber applications, reduces transportation energy and facilitates faster assembly, contributing to overall lower carbon emissions and energy consumption in high-rise construction [100].

The effective implementation of DfMA is contingent on the utilization of advanced digital tools. It is evident that platforms such as Grasshopper, Dynamo and integrated BIM environments facilitate the precise design of geometrically complex components [10]. Furthermore, these platforms enable the automation of technical documentation generation, the optimization of details for production and the early detection of potential design collisions. Research has demonstrated that the integration of DfMA with BIM facilitates effective management of design information throughout the entire life cycle of a building, from its conceptualization to its operation and eventual deconstruction [101].

Notwithstanding the considerable potential of DfMA, the implementation of this methodology in architectural practice is encumbered by a number of limitations. These include a lack of digital competence among process participants, limited availability of prefabrication plants, a paucity of uniform production standards, and integration difficulties between BIM and CAM tools. The findings of this study demonstrate that the efficacy of BIM and DfMA implementation in timber construction is contingent upon the degree of digital maturity exhibited by the parties involved in the process.

In a broader context, the results obtained confirm that the DfMA methodology can significantly contribute to the achievement of the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially in areas such as SDG 9 (Infrastructure and Innovation), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). The concept of Design for Disassembly, in which elements are designed with the intention of disassembly and reuse, aligns with the principles of the circular economy. This approach has the potential to significantly reduce CO₂ emissions and construction waste [8]. In the context of timber construction, the importance of integrating advanced digital tools with circular design is emphasized. The concept of ‘circular wood construction’ emphasizes that durability, reusability of components and traceability are pivotal elements of DfMA-compliant construction [102].

The implementation of DfMA principles necessitates a comprehensive systemic perspective, encompassing the supply chain, regulatory frameworks, and design culture. The efficacy of DfMA is contingent upon the integration of process participants at the concept stage. The true merits of this approach become evident only when there is consistent coordination between the designer, the manufacturer, and the contractor [3]. The findings of this study corroborate this relationship: the environmental effectiveness of DfMA in timber architecture is predominantly attributable to the level of cooperation and communication in the design process.

Notwithstanding the evident advantages, the implementation of DfMA in practice still faces a number of challenges, including a lack of standardization of procedures, insufficient digital skills among designers, and difficulties in cross-industry integration. The fragmentation of the supply chain and resistance to changes in the design-build model also remain limitations [103]. This underscores the necessity for additional educational initiatives and implementation strategies, particularly within the domain of small and medium-sized enterprises. Timber structures are confronted with a multitude of challenges, encompassing both technological and psychological aspects. The former pertains to issues such as the inherent instability of timber, which is often perceived as a material of concern. Their analysis of timber architecture as a vehicle for cultural and environmental values constitutes a significant contribution to the discourse on the social acceptance of DfMA in construction [104].

In the local context, the potential for the implementation of DfMA in Poland appears substantial, particularly in view of the increasing demand for prefabricated construction, the evolving environmental regulations, and the accessibility of wood raw materials. This assertion is further substantiated by analyses demonstrating that the timber construction sector in Poland is experiencing rapid growth, attaining a value of PLN 3.5 billion in 2022, though it continues to represent a negligible proportion of the housing market [97]. Nevertheless, challenges persist, including but not limited to low levels of production automation, limited digitization of the construction process, and fragmented certification standards for construction materials. Despite the relatively low popularity of prefabrication in Polish residential construction, this technology contributes to a significant reduction in investment completion times and increases the efficiency of the development process [105]. An additional barrier, also identified in the Polish context, is the public perception of the durability of wooden structures, which often differs from the actual material and fire safety parameters. This is demonstrated by a study on the prefabrication of glued laminated timber houses in Poland [106]. The extant research highlights the importance of engaging with the local community in the design process of new spaces. This engagement has been shown to foster a stronger sense of identification with the local area, thereby increasing the acceptance of innovative technologies such as prefabrication and timber structures [107]. In this regard, there is a necessity to develop models of cooperation between technical universities and industry, and to initiate demonstration projects supporting the transfer of knowledge and technology [108].

This study introduces a novel perspective to the field of DfMA research by centering on the implementation of this methodology in wooden structures characterized by intricate geometry. The present study is distinctive in its integration of environmental efficiency, digital modeling and practical aspects of prefabricated production, a departure from the majority of previous publications on modular construction. This work signifies an advancement in our comprehension of the interrelationships between parametric design, production automation and sustainable development.

In view of the aforementioned findings, significant directions for future research are also emerging. The present study provides a conceptual and methodological contribution to understanding the applicability of DfMA in complex timber construction; however, several limitations should be acknowledged. The analysis was primarily qualitative in nature and based on selected case studies, which may not fully represent the entire diversity of DfMA applications in practice. Moreover, the absence of quantitative life-cycle data restricts the capacity for direct comparison between DfMA-based and conventional design approaches.

Consequently, future research should concentrate on the development of quantitative frameworks for the assessment of DfMA in timber structures, incorporating the integration of environmental (LCA) and economic (LCC) indicators to measure the actual sustainability potential of these systems. It is recommended that subsequent studies encompass long-term empirical monitoring and cross-comparative analysis of modular, hybrid and geometrically complex structures. This will facilitate the delineation of the boundaries of DfMA applicability.

Furthermore, in order to advance the transition towards circular and digitalised construction, it is recommended that future investigations explore policy mechanisms, regulatory incentives, and capacity-building strategies supporting the integration of DfMA within the broader framework of sustainable architecture [109]. A systemic approach of this kind has the potential to enhance the climate neutrality and resource efficiency of the built environment.

In view of the aforementioned findings, significant directions for future research are also emerging. It is imperative to conduct in-depth environmental (LCA) and economic (LCC) analyses, in addition to research on the integration of DfMA with advanced digital technologies, including artificial intelligence algorithms that support the optimization of prefabrication and assembly robotics. Furthermore, the social perception of DfMA technology and the cultural barriers associated with the implementation of innovative production models in the construction sector are also worthy of discussion. A key issue that remains to be addressed is the development of normative guidelines and tools to assist designers in applying DfMA in local conditions, taking into account the specific nature of the materials and technologies available in a given country. This necessity can be complemented by a co-creation approach, i.e., the important role of social participation in the adaptation of innovative environmental and infrastructure solutions in cities. The application of this logic to DfMA may facilitate the implementation of such technologies in timber construction, especially in environments characterized by low levels of trust in prefabrication [109].

The development of prefabricated technologies in Poland is further supported by the findings of comparative studies undertaken to analyze the time, cost and efficiency of three methods of constructing single-family buildings: traditional (brick), prefabricated reinforced concrete and timber frame. The analysis demonstrated that the shortest construction time is achieved through the use of reinforced concrete prefabrication. Timber frame technology is comparable in terms of time, although it remains more expensive due to higher material costs and a lack of production scale. Despite this, brick technology still dominates in Poland, mainly due to cultural reasons and investor habits. These results indicate the necessity to advocate for alternative methods of building construction, including the utilization of DfMA.

The discussion confirms that integrating DfMA with digital technologies and sustainable design strategies provides a viable pathway for mainstreaming engineered timber in contemporary construction.

5. Conclusions

Prefabrication of timber structures supported by Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) processes provide a powerful pathway to enhancing energy efficiency and climate neutrality in the built environment. By integrating digital design with automated fabrication, DfMA enables the meticulous optimization of resource utilization. This precision significantly reduces material waste compared to traditional on-site construction, which in turn lowers the overall embodied carbon by maximizing the effective use of timber’s sequestered carbon. The manufacturing of high-tolerance components ensures superior airtightness and minimized thermal bridging when assembled, directly improving the operational energy efficiency of the building. DfMA transforms timber from a sustainable material into a high-performance, resource-efficient system, acting as a crucial enabler for achieving climate goals in the construction sector.

The convergence of advanced digital fabrication and engineered wood products has ushered timber construction into the Fourth Industrial Revolution. Contemporary architectural practice increasingly demands bespoke, free-form geometries that challenge conventional on-site assembly and drive up costs and lead times. In response, Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) principles—originally developed in discrete manufacturing—are being adapted to timber to streamline the entire value chain, from parametric design through factory fabrication to on-site installation. Engineered wood products demonstrate remarkable carbon benefits that fundamentally distinguish them from conventional construction materials.

The application of Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) methodologies to non-standard timber structures represents a transformative approach in contemporary architecture and engineering, enabling the efficient realization of complex, sustainable designs through prefabricated engineered wood systems. By integrating structural modeling, material properties, and manufacturing methods, this study underscores the synergistic potential of these domains to overcome traditional challenges in timber construction, such as geometric variability, performance predictability, and production scalability.

In the realm of structural modeling, DfMA facilitates advanced parametric and computational tools that allow for the simulation and optimization of non-standard geometries, ensuring structural integrity while minimizing material waste. These models not only predict load-bearing behaviors under diverse conditions but also inform iterative design adjustments that align with assembly constraints, thereby bridging the gap between conceptual innovation and practical feasibility.

Closely intertwined with modeling are the material properties of engineered wood products, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT) and glue-laminated timber (glulam), which exhibit enhanced strength-to-weight ratios, anisotropic behaviors, and environmental benefits compared to conventional materials. DfMA emphasizes the selection and customization of these properties—through fiber orientation, layering techniques, and additive treatments—to enhance durability, fire resistance, and acoustic performance, while accommodating the inherent variability of timber as a renewable resource.

Manufacturing methods, particularly in prefabrication, serve as the operational nexus, leveraging CNC machining, robotic assembly, and modular production to translate modeled designs and material specifications into tangible components with high precision and reduced on-site labor. This integration minimizes errors, accelerates construction timelines, and promotes circular economy principles by enabling disassembly and reuse.

Collectively, these three areas demonstrate that DfMA is not merely a procedural framework but a holistic paradigm that amplifies the viability of non-standard timber structures in addressing global sustainability imperatives, such as carbon sequestration and resource efficiency. Future research should explore the incorporation of emerging technologies like AI-driven optimization and bio-based composites to further refine these linkages, paving the way for broader adoption in urban development and resilient infrastructure. Ultimately, this methodology holds promise for redefining timber as a cornerstone of innovative, eco-conscious building practices.