Investigating the Spatial Pattern of Older Drivers’ Eye Fixation Behaviour and Associations with Their Visual Capacity
Abstract
:Introduction
Background
Research Aim
Methods
Subjects
Data Collections
Data Analysis and Visualisation
- SUMDuration/Manoeuvre time (the ratio of total fixation duration to manoeuvre time)
- FREQFixation/Manoeuvre time (the ratio of eye fixation count to the manoeuvre time)
- MAXDuration (the maximum fixation duration)
- MINDuration (the minimum fixation duration)
- MEANDuration (the mean of fixation duration)
- SDDuration (the standard deviation of fixation durations)
Results
Visual Capacity on UFOV Test
Statistical Parameters of Eye Fixations in Relation to Driving Manoeuvres
Correlations between Visual Capacity and Oculomotor Behaviour in Older Drivers
Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Anstey, K. J., J. Wood, S. Lord, and J. Walker. 2005. Cognitive, sensory and physical factors enabling driving safety in older adults. Clinical psychology review 25, 1: 45–65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Arrington, K. 2010. Viewpoint eye tracker. Available online: http://www.arringtonresearch.com/Fall2010Catalog.pdf.
- B. Sekuler, P. J. B. M. M. A. 2000. Effects of Aging on the Useful Field of View. Exp Aging Res 26, 2: 103–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ball, K., J. D. Edwards, and L. A. Ross. 2007. The impact of speed of processing training on cognitive and everyday functions. Journals of Gerontology—Series B Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 62, SPEC. ISSUE 1: 19–31. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bedard, M., E. Leonard, J. McAuliffe, B. Weaver, C. Gibbons, and S. Dubois. 2006. Visual attention and older drivers: The contribution of inhibition of return to safe driving. Exp Aging Res 32, 2: 119–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Blignaut, P. 2009. Fixation identification: The optimum threshold for a dispersion algorithm. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics 71, 4: 881–895. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boot, W. R., C. Stothart, and N. Charness. 2014. Improving the Safety of Aging Road Users: A MiniReview. Gerontology 60, 1: 90–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Charlton, J. L., B. Fildes, S. Koppel, C. Muir, J. Scully, D. Andrea, and M. Hammer. 2005. Visual search patterns in older and younger drivers. Paper presented at the Proceedings Australasian Road Safety Research Policing Education Conference. [Google Scholar]
- Clarke, D., P. Ward, C. Bartle, and W. Truman. 2010. Older drivers’ road traffic crashes in the UK. Accident analysis and prevention 42, 4: 1018–1024. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Classen, S., Y. Wang, A. M. Crizzle, S. M. Winter, and D. N. Lanford. 2013. Predicting older driver on-road performance by means of the useful field of view and trail making test part b. American Journal of Occupational Therapy 67, 5: 574–582. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, A. S. 1977. Is the duration of an eye fixation a sufficient criterion referring to information input? Perceptual and motor skills. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, A. S., and H. Studach. 1977. Eye movements while driving cars around curves. Perceptual and motor skills 44, 3 I: 683–689. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cooper, J. M., N. Medeiros-Ward, and D. L. Strayer. 2013. The impact of eye movements and cognitive workload on lateral position variability in driving. Human Factors 55, 5: 1001–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Dukic, T., and T. Broberg. 2012. Older drivers’ visual search behaviour at intersections. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 15, 4: 462–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Edwards, J. D., L. A. Ross, V. G. Wadley, O. J. Clay, M. Crowe, D. L. Roenker, and K. K. Ball. 2006. The useful field of view test: Normative data for older adults. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 21, 4: 275–286. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falkmer, T., J. Dahlman, T. Dukic, A. Bjällmark, and M. Larsson. 2008. Fixation identification in centroid versus start-point modes using eye-tracking data. Perceptual and motor skills 106, 3: 710–724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Falkmer, T., and N. P. Gregersen. 2001. Fixation patterns of learner drivers with and without cerebral palsy (CP) when driving in real traffic environments. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 4, 3: 171–185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 4, 3: 171–185. [CrossRef]
- Falkmer, T., and N. P. Gregersen. 2005. A comparison of eye movement behavior of inexperienced and experienced drivers in real traffic environments. Optometry and Vision Science 82, 8: 732–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fancello, G., C. Pinna, and P. Fadda. 2013. Visual perception of the roundabout in old age. In WIT Transactions on the Built Environment. Vol. 130, pp. 721–732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Frederick, S., C. Katarzyna, and S. Brian. 2008. The Amorphous Fixation Measure Revisited: With Applications to Autism. Paper presented at the 30th Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Washington, DC. [Google Scholar]
- Glisky, E. L. 2007. Changes in cognitive function in human aging. In Brain aging: Models, methods, and mechanisms. CRC Press: pp. 3–20. [Google Scholar]
- Hamel, J., S. De Beukelaer, A. Kraft, S. Ohl, H. J. Audebert, and S. A. Brandt. 2013. Age-related changes in visual exploratory behavior in a natural scene setting. Frontiers in Psychology 4: 339. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Itkonen, T., J. Pekkanen, and O. Lappi. 2015. Driver Gaze Behavior Is Different in Normal Curve Driving and when Looking at the Tangent Point. PLoS ONE 10, 8: e0135505. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Konstantopoulos, P., P. Chapman, and D. Crundall. 2012. Exploring the ability to identify visual search differences when observing drivers’ eye movements. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 15, 3: 378–386. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Land, M. F., and D. N. Lee. 1994. Where we look when we steer. Nature 369, 6483: 742–744. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Lappi, O. 2013. Eyes on the Road: Eye Movements and the Visual Control of Locomotion in Curve Driving. Available online: http://urn.fi/URN:ISBN:978-952-10-9646-4.
- Lappi, O. 2015. Eye tracking in the wild: The good, the bad and the ugly. Journal of Eye Movement Research 8, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lappi, O., and E. Lehtonen. 2013. Eye-movements in real curve driving: Pursuit-like optokinesis in vehicle frame of reference, stability in an allocentricreference coordinate system. Journal of Eye Movement Research 6, 1. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lappi, O., J. Pekkanen, and T. H. Itkonen. 2013. Pursuit eye-movements in curve driving differentiate between future path and tangent point models. PLoS ONE 8, 7: e68326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, J. D. 2008. Fifty years of driving safety research. Human Factors 50, 3: 521–528. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lees, M. N., J. D. Cosman, J. D. Lee, N. Fricke, and M. Rizzo. 2010. Translating cognitive neuroscience to the driver’s operational environment: A neuroergonomic approach. The American Journal of Psychology 123, 4: 391–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehtonen, E., O. Lappi, I. Koirikivi, and H. Summala. 2014. Effect of driving experience on anticipatory look-ahead fixations in real curve driving. Accident Analysis & Prevention 70, 0: 195–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lehtonen, E., O. Lappi, H. Kotkanen, and H. Summala. 2013. Look-ahead fixations in curve driving. Ergonomics 56, 1: 34–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Leversen, J. S. R., B. Hopkins, and H. Sigmundsson. 2013. Ageing and driving: Examining the effects of visual processing demands. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour 17: 1–4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Marmeleira, J., I. Ferreira, F. Melo, and M. Godinho. 2012. Associations of Physical Activity with Driving-Related Cognitive Abilities in Older Drivers: An Exploratory Study1,2. Perceptual and motor skills 115, 2: 521–533. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- McGwin, J. G., and D. B. Brown. 1999. Characteristics of traffic crashes among young, middle-aged, and older drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention 31, 3: 181–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Min, Y.-K., B.-C. Min, and B. Kim. 2013. Changes in eye movements and driving performance at different intersections as a function of age and turn type. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 43, 4: 342–349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Molnar, F. J., S. C. Marshall, M. Man-Son-Hing, K. G. Wilson, A. M. Byszewski, and I. Stiell. 2007. Acceptability and concurrent validity of measures to predict older driver involvement in motor vehicle crashes: An Emergency Department pilot case-control study. Accident analysis and prevention 39, 5: 10561063. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mourant, R. R., and T. H. Rockwell. 1970. Mapping eyemovement patterns to the visual scene in driving: An exploratory study. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 12, 1: 81–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakayasu, H., T. Miyoshi, N. Kondo, H. Aoki, and P. Patterson. 2011. Analysis of Driver Perceptions and Behavior When Driving in an Unfamiliar Traffic Regulation. JACIII 15, 8: 1039–1048. [Google Scholar]
- Owsley, C. 2013. Visual processing speed. Vision Research 90: 52–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owsley, C., K. Ball, and D. M. Keeton. 1995. Relationship between visual sensitivity and target localization in older adults. Vision Research 35, 4: 579–587. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Owsley, C., K. Ball, M. E. Sloane, D. L. Roenker, and J. R. Bruni. 1991. Visual/cognitive correlates of vehicle accidents in older drivers. Psychology and aging 6, 3: 403–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rapoport, M. J., G. Naglie, K. Weegar, A. Myers, D. Cameron, A. Crizzle, and S. Marshall. 2013. The relationship between cognitive performance, perceptions of driving comfort and abilities, and selfreported driving restrictions among healthy older drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention 61: 288–295. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Readinger, W. O., A. Chatziastros, D. W. Cunningham, H. H. Bülthoff, and J. E. Cutting. 2002. Gazeeccentricity effects on road position and steering. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied 8, 4: 247–258. [Google Scholar]
- Richardson, E. D., and R. A. Marottoli. 2003. Visual attention and driving behaviors among communityliving older persons. Journals of Gerontology—Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 58, 9: 832–836. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Sagberg, F., Selpi, G. F. Bianchi Piccinini, and J. Engstrom. 2015. A Review of Research on Driving Styles and Road Safety. Hum Factors 57, 7: 1248–1275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Salvucci, D. D., and J. H. Goldberg. 2000. Identifying fixations and saccades in eye-tracking protocols. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2000 symposium on Eye tracking research & applications, Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, USA. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schütz, A. C., D. I. Braun, and K. R. Gegenfurtner. 2011. Eye movements and perception: A selective review. Journal of Vision 11, 5: 9–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Schweizer, T. A., K. Kan, Y. Hung, F. Tam, G. Naglie, and S. Graham. 2013. Brain activity during driving with distraction: An immersive fMRI study. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience(FEB). [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Senders, J. W., A. Kristofferson, W. Levison, C. Dietrich, and J. Ward. 1967. The attentional demand of automobile driving. Highway research record (195). [Google Scholar]
- Smither, J. A. A., M. Mouloua, P. A. Hancock, J. Duley, R. Adams, and K. Latorella. 2004. Aging and driving Part I: Implications of perceptual and physical changes. Human Performance Situation Awareness and Automation: Current Research and Trends, Vol. 1–2, pp. 315–319. [Google Scholar]
- Sun, Q., R. Odolinski, J. Xia, J. Foster, T. Falkmer, and H. Lee. 2017. Validating the efficacy of GPS tracking vehicle movement for driving behaviour assessment. Travel Behaviour and Society 6, 32–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, Q., J. Xia, N. Nadarajah, T. Falkmer, J. Foster, and H. Lee. 2016. Assessing drivers’ visual-motor coordination using eye tracking, GNSS and GIS: A spatial turn in driving psychology. Journal of Spatial Science, 1–18. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sun, Q., J. C. Xia, J. Foster, T. Falkmer, and H. Lee. 2016. Framework for investigating older adults’ driving behaviours and the underlying cognitive mechanisms . Paper presented at the World Conference on Transport Research—WCTR 2016, Shanghai, China. [Google Scholar]
- Tsai, Y. F., E. Viirre, C. Strychacz, B. Chase, and T. P. Jung. 2007. Task performance and eye activity: Predicting behavior relating to cognitive workload. Aviat Space Environ Med 78, 5 Suppl: B176–185. [Google Scholar]
- Underwood, G., P. Chapman, N. Brocklehurst, J. Underwood, and D. Crundall. 2003. Visual attention while driving: Sequences of eye fixations made by experienced and novice drivers. Ergonomics 46, 6: 629–646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wann, J. P., and D. K. Swapp. 2000. Why you should look where you are going. Nat Neurosci 3, 7: 647648. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wickens, C. D. 1991. Processing resources and attention. Multiple-task performance, 3–34. [Google Scholar]
- Wilkie, R., G. Kountouriotis, N. Merat, and J. Wann. 2010. Using vision to control locomotion: Looking where you want to go. Experimental brain research 204, 4: 539–547. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wood, J. M., and C. Owsley. 2014. Useful Field of View Test. Gerontology 60, 4: 315–318. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Copyright © 2016. This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Share and Cite
Sun, Q.; Xia, J.; Falkmer, T.; Lee, H. Investigating the Spatial Pattern of Older Drivers’ Eye Fixation Behaviour and Associations with Their Visual Capacity. J. Eye Mov. Res. 2016, 9, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.6.2
Sun Q, Xia J, Falkmer T, Lee H. Investigating the Spatial Pattern of Older Drivers’ Eye Fixation Behaviour and Associations with Their Visual Capacity. Journal of Eye Movement Research. 2016; 9(6):1-16. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.6.2
Chicago/Turabian StyleSun, Qian (Chayn), Jianhong (Cecilia) Xia, Torbjörn Falkmer, and Hoe Lee. 2016. "Investigating the Spatial Pattern of Older Drivers’ Eye Fixation Behaviour and Associations with Their Visual Capacity" Journal of Eye Movement Research 9, no. 6: 1-16. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.6.2
APA StyleSun, Q., Xia, J., Falkmer, T., & Lee, H. (2016). Investigating the Spatial Pattern of Older Drivers’ Eye Fixation Behaviour and Associations with Their Visual Capacity. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 9(6), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.9.6.2