Active Commuting to and from School, Cognitive Performance, and Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Definitions
- Active commuting to and from school. Is defined as the use of active means of transportation as walking, cycling, skateboarding, or other nonmotorized means that implies energy expenditure for commuting to and from school.
- Cognitive performance. In this review, cognitive performance is used to describe the cognitive functions of schoolchildren through performance of standardized and validated tests that including different components of cognition [30]. Following the classification adopted in a recent systematic review and meta-analysis [5], we established three groups of cognitive functions: (1) nonexecutive cognitive functions (cognitive domains related minimally with executive function, such as decision making or processing speed) [5]; (2) core executive functions (mental processes that generally include three core executive functions: inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility) [31]; and (3) metacognition (the individual´s capacity to understand cognitive processes and use knowledge to regulate behaviors [reflects the use of higher-level executive functions such as planning, reasoning and problem solving]) [29].
- Academic achievement. This term is used to describe the performance of children through the use of standardized tests at school or the educational environment (such as the scores on specific subjects or classroom test scores, the grade point average or other formal assessments) [30].
2.2. Registration and Protocol
2.3. Search Strategy
2.4. Study Selection Criteria
2.5. Search Data Extraction
2.6. Risk of Bias
2.7. Statistical Analysis
Study a | Population Characteristics | Outcome | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | Country | Sample Size and Age | ACS b | Cognitive Performance | Academic Achievement |
Ruiz-Hermosa et al. 2018 [40] | Spain | 1159 (599 boys), 5.3 ± 0.6 (years) |
| Battery of General and Differential Aptitudes (BADyG):
| Battery of General and Differential Aptitudes (BADyG):
|
García-Hermoso et al. 2017 [25] | Chile | 389 (196 boys), 12.0 ± 0.6 (years) |
| Grade scores:
| |
Mora-González et al. 2017 [41] | Spain | 489 (240 boys), 10 ± 1.2 (years) |
| Grade scores:
| |
1649 (820 boys), 14.2 ± 1.3 (years) | |||||
Ruiz-Ariza et al. 2017 [42] | Spain | 1006 (428 boys), 14.4 ± 1.7 (years) |
| Grade scores:
| |
Domazet et al. 2016 [43] | Denmark | 568 (269 boys), 13 ± 0.6 (years) |
| Eriksen flanker task:
| Danish Ministry of Education Test:
|
López-Vicente et al. 2016 [44] | Spain | 2897 (599 boys), 8.6 ± 0.9 (years) |
| N-back task:
| |
Martins et al. 2016 [45] | Portugal | 391 (189 boys), 16.0 ± 1.5 (years) |
| Self-reported question of academic achievement:
| |
Van Dijk et al. 2014 [46] | The Netherlands | 270 (143 boys), 13.4 ± 1.3 (years) |
| D2 test of attention:
| Grade scores:
|
Stea and Torstveit 2014 [47] | Norway | 2432 (1187 boys), 16 ± 0.4 (years) |
| Grade scores:
| |
Haapala et al. 2014 [48] | Finland | 186 (107 boys), 7.7 ± 0.4 (years) |
| Ala-asteen lukutesti (ALLU test battery):
| |
Stock et al. 2012 [49] | Denmark | 10,380 (5086 boys), 14.1 ± 0.4 (years) |
| Self-reported question of academic achievement:
| |
Martínez-Gómez et al. 2011 [50] | Spain | 1700 (808 boys), 15.4 ± 1.3 (years) |
| Short Test of Educational Ability (SRA):
| Short test of Educational Ability (SRA):
|
Reference | Results | Covariates |
---|---|---|
Ruiz-Hermosa et al. 2018 [40] | No differences were found between walking to school and passive commuters with Nonverbal Intelligence and General Intelligence outcomes in children aged 4 to <6 years old. Walking to school was not associated with Logical Reasoning, Spatial Factor and General Intelligence outcomes in children aged ≥6 to 7 years old. | Age, BMI, CRF, and SES. |
Domazet et al. 2016 [43] | Walking and cycling to and from school was not associated with Inhibitory Control. | Age, sex, SES, breakfast consumption, and supporting teaching outside the classroom during school hours. |
López-Vicente et al. 2016 [44] | No differences were found between active commuting to school and passive commuters in Working Memory and Attention outcomes. | Sex, maternal education, SES, residential neighborhood, and air pollution. |
Van Dijk et al. 2014 [46] | ACS was positively associated with executive functioning (Response Inhibition/Selective Attention) in girls (β = 0.17, p = 0.037), but not in boys. No differences between ACS and passive commuters with Information-processing Speed outcomes were shown. | Sex, academic year, SES, BMI, depressive symptoms, ethnicity, school level, and PA per week by accelerometer. |
Martínez-Gómez et al. 2011 [50] | Girls in the active commuting to school group had significantly higher scores than girls in the non-active commuting to school group in Overall Cognitive Performance (53.20 ± 14.01 vs. 49.61 ± 12.24; p < 0.001). In addition, girls in the active commuting to school > 15-minute group had better scores in Reasoning Ability and Overall Cognitive Performance (p < 0.05) than girls in the active commuting to school ≤ 15-minute group. No significant differences were found in boys. | Age, school, BMI, and extracurricular PA. |
Reference | Results | Covariates |
---|---|---|
Ruiz-Hermosa et al. 2018 [40] | No differences were found between walking to school and passive commuters with language-related skills outcomes in children aged 4 to <6 years old. Walking to school was not associated with language-related skills and mathematics-related skills outcomes in children aged ≥6 to 7 years old. | Age, BMI, CRF, and SES. |
García-Hermoso et al. 2017 [25] | Students who spent 30 to 60 min of ACS were more likely to have better scores in mathematics-related skills (OR = 2.19, 95% CI: 1.06 to 5.05; p = 0.028) and language-related skills (OR = 3.53, 95% CI: 1.12 to 4.37; p = 0.003) than noncommuters. No differences were found between non-ACS and ≤30 min of ACS groups or between non-ACS and >60 min of ACS groups. | Sex, weight status, birth weight, PA, screen time, maternal education, and SES. |
Mora-González et al. 2017 [41] | Children in the non-ACS group had better scores than children in the ACS group in mathematics-related skills (7.46 ± 0.17 vs 6.95 ± 0.12, respectively; p = 0.009), language-related skills (7.72 ± 0.16 vs. 7.10 ± 0.12; p = 0.007), English (7.63 ± 0.17 vs. 7.01 ± 0.12; p = 0.002), natural sciences (7.59 ± 0.17 vs. 7.02 ± 0.12; p = 0.003) and overall academic achievement (7.60 ± 0.15 vs. 7.02 ± 0.11; p = 0.001). No differences were found between the ACS and non-ACS groups with academic achievement outcomes (mathematics-related skills, language-related skills, English, natural sciences, social sciences and overall academic achievement) in adolescents. | Age, sex, and school. |
Ruiz-Ariza et al. 2017 [42] | Girls in the ACS group had significantly higher scores than girls in the non-ACS group in mathematics-related skills (6.47 ± 2.02 vs. 6.02 ± 2.15, respectively; p = 0.027), physical education (7.65 ± 1.38 vs. 7.28 ± 1.50; p = 0.005) and overall academic achievement (6.97 ± 1.49 vs. 6.58 ± 1.54; p = 0.008). No significant differences were found in boys. | Age and BMI. |
Domazet et al. 2016 [43] | Students who cycled to and from school were more likely to have better scores than noncommuters in mathematics-related skills (OR = 5.4, 95% CI: 1.9 to 8.8; p < 0.01). Walking to and from school was not associated with mathematics-related skills. | Age, sex, SES, breakfast consumption, and supporting teaching outside the classroom during school hours. |
Martins et al. 2016 [45] | No differences were found between non-ACS and one-way ACS or both-ways ACS in language-related skills, mathematics-related skills, and physical education outcomes. | Age, sex, SES, and school. |
Van Dijk et al. 2014 [46] | No differences were found between ACS and passive commuters in mathematics-related skills and overall academic achievement outcomes. | Sex, academic year, SES, BMI, depressive symptoms, ethnicity, school level, and PA per week by accelerometer. |
Stea and Torstveit 2014 [47] | ACS was positively associated with better scores in overall academic achievement than noncommuters in both girls (OR = 1.51, 95% CI: 1.10 to 2.08; p < 0.05) and boys (OR = 1.72, 95% CI: 1.26 to 2.35; p < 0.05). | BMI and SES. |
Haapala et al. 2014 [48] | ACS was positively associated with reading fluency (β = 0.26, p < 0.01) and reading comprehension (β = 0.25, p < 0.01), but not with mathematics-related skills in boys. In girls, no associations were found. | Age, sex, SES, PANIC study group (exercise and diet vs. control), body fat percentage, lean body mass, CRF, motor performance, and reading disability. |
Stock et al. 2012 [49] | ACS group was positively associated with higher overall academic achievement (OR = 2.03, 95% CI: 1.57 to 2.62). | SES and type of land use (buildings, single houses, farming, or traffic). |
Martínez-Gómez et al. 2011 [50] | Girls in the active commuting to school group had significantly higher scores than girls in the non-active commuting to school group in language-related skills (20.82 ± 6.08 vs. 18.90 ± 5.88, respectively; p < 0.001) and mathematics-related skills (13.28 ± 4.91 vs. 12.36 ± 4.28; p = 0.008). In addition, girls in the active commuting to school > 15-minute group had better scores in mathematics-related skills than girls in the active commuting to school ≤ 15-minute group. No significant differences were found in boys. | Age, school, BMI, and extracurricular PA. |
3. Results
3.1. Systematic Review
3.2. Risk of Bias
3.3. Meta-Analysis
3.3.1. Cognitive Performance
3.3.2. Academic Achievement
3.3.3. Sensitivity and Subgroup Analysis
4. Discussion
Limitations
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Ruiz-Hermosa, A.; Álvarez-Bueno, C.; Cavero-Redondo, I.; Martínez-Vizcaíno, V.; Redondo-Tébar, A.; Sánchez-López, M. Active Commuting to and from School, Cognitive Performance, and Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1839. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101839
Ruiz-Hermosa A, Álvarez-Bueno C, Cavero-Redondo I, Martínez-Vizcaíno V, Redondo-Tébar A, Sánchez-López M. Active Commuting to and from School, Cognitive Performance, and Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(10):1839. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101839
Chicago/Turabian StyleRuiz-Hermosa, Abel, Celia Álvarez-Bueno, Iván Cavero-Redondo, Vicente Martínez-Vizcaíno, Andrés Redondo-Tébar, and Mairena Sánchez-López. 2019. "Active Commuting to and from School, Cognitive Performance, and Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 10: 1839. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16101839