Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children—The Skilled Kids Study
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methods
2.1. Study Protocol and Study Participants
2.2. Physical Environment: Geographical Location and Residential Density
2.3. Motor Competence
2.4. Time Spent Outdoors and Participation in Organised Sports
2.5. Other Assessments
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Descriptive Results
3.2. Gender Differences
3.3. Geographic Location
3.4. Residential Density
4. Discussion
4.1. Geographical Location
4.2. Residential Density
4.3. Gender Differences
4.4. Suggestions for Future Research from the Cognitive Development Perspective
4.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Physical Environment | Localities | Childcare Centres | Educational Level | Income Mean | Children (n) | Age in Years (SD) | % of the Study Sample | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Geographic location (°C 1/h/day 2) | n | n | Range 1 to 4 (SD) | Range 1 to 8 (SD) | All | Girls | Boys | All | Girls | Boys | All | Girls | Boys |
Southern (−6.6 to +17.7/6 to 19) | 10 | 17 | 2.90 (0.83) | 4.58 (1.56) | 449 | 224 | 225 | 5.30 (1.09) | 5.24 (1.07) | 5.35 (1.11) | 47.5 | 47.4 | 47.5 |
Central (−8.1 to +16.8/5 to 20) | 10 | 13 | 2.63 (0.74) | 4.00 (1.28) | 335 | 163 | 172 | 5.59 (1.13) | 5.57 (1.18) | 5.62 (1.08) | 35.4 | 34.5 | 36.4 |
Northern (−11.2 to +15.1/2.5 to 24) | 4 | 7 | 2.48 (0.70) | 4.30 (1.35) | 161 | 85 | 76 | 5.40 (1.15) | 5.41 (1.15) | 5.38 (1.15) | 17.1 | 18.1 | 16.1 |
Residential density(n/km2) | |||||||||||||
Metropolitan (876.4–2964) | 2 | 6 | 3.17 (0.79) | 4.91 (1.68) | 189 | 94 | 95 | 5.17 (1.15) | 5.09 (1.08) | 5.25 (1.20) | 20.0 | 19.9 | 20.0 |
Cities (24.65–762.9) | 13 | 17 | 2.69 (0.77) | 4.15 (1.45) | 421 | 211 | 210 | 5.60 (1.11) | 5.53 (1.18) | 5.66 (1.04) | 44.5 | 44.7 | 44.4 |
Rural areas (4.93–64.35) | 5 | 7 | 2.56 (0.69) | 4.31 (1.24) | 183 | 98 | 85 | 5.48 (1.15) | 5.49 (1.15) | 5.47 (1.15) | 19.4 | 20.8 | 18.0 |
Countryside (1.49–8.56) | 4 | 7 | 2.53 (0.69) | 4.13 (1.22) | 152 | 69 | 83 | 5.15 (0.97) | 5.18 (0.91) | 5.12 (1.02) | 16.1 | 14.6 | 17.5 |
In total sample | 24 | 37 | 2.73 (0.80) | 4.33 (1.46) | 945 | 472 | 473 | 5.42 (1.12) | 5.38 (1.13) | 5.45 (1.11) | 100 | 49.9 | 50.1 |
Child Factors | N | Mean (SD) | Min | Max | Mean (SD) Girls | Mean (SD) Boys | Gender Differences p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (years) | 945 | 5.42 (1.12) | 3.08 | 7.75 | 5.38 (1.13) | 5.45 (1.11) | 0.36 |
BMI SDS (%) | 943 | 0.19 (1.05) | −4.55 | 3.45 | 0.21 (1.13) | 0.17 (0.98) | 0.56 |
Significantly underweight | 15 | 1.6 | 2.5 | 0.6 | 0.66 | ||
Underweight | 22 | 2.3 | 2.2 | 2.5 | 0.12 | ||
Normal weight | 687 | 72.9 | 77.1 | 68.6 | <0.001 | ||
Overweight | 178 | 18.9 | 14.4 | 23.4 | <0.001 | ||
Obesity | 41 | 4.3 | 3.8 | 4.9 | 0.001 | ||
Height (cm) | 943 | 113.52 (9.73) | 86.30 | 137.30 | 112.64 (10.05) | 114.40 (9.33) | 0.001 |
Weight (kg) | 943 | 21.19 (4.47) | 11.30 | 41.60 | 21.04 (4.73) | 21.34 (4.19) | 0.62 |
TGMD-3 locomotor skills (0–46 p.) | 945 | 27.52 (8.07) | 0 | 46 | 28.89 (7.78) | 26.16 (8.13) | <0.001 |
TGMD-3 object control skills (0–54 p.) | 945 | 24.87 (9.06) | 3 | 50 | 22.43 (7.91) | 27.29 (9.49) | <0.001 |
TGMD-3 total score (0–100 p.) | 945 | 52.39 (15.16) | 4 | 88 | 51.32 (14.11) | 53.46 (16.08) | 0.030 |
Time spent outdoors (%) | 938 | 100 | 0.001 | ||||
Less than 1 h/day | 94 | 10.0 | 12.8 | 7.2 | |||
Approximately 1 h/day | 493 | 52.6 | 52.2 | 52.9 | |||
1 to 2 h/day | 351 | 37.4 | 35.0 | 39.9 | |||
Participation in organised sports (mins/week) | 902 | 49.50 (65.28) | 0 | 421.00 | 48.34 (59.84) | 50.65 (70.27) | 0.97 |
Child Factors | Total Sample | Southern | Central | Northern | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall p-Value | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | |
LM skills (max.46p.) | 0.93 | 224 | 28.40 (7.81) | 28.99 | 163 | 29.47 (7.70) | 28.71 | 85 | 29.05 (7.87) | 28.93 |
OC skills (max. 54p.) | 0.27 | 224 | 20.83 (7.75) | 21.48 | 163 | 24.23 (7.78) | 23.41 | 85 | 23.21 (7.80) | 23.08 |
TGMD-3 total (max. 100p.) | 0.58 | 224 | 49.23 (13.96) | 50.48 | 163 | 53.71 (13.90) | 52.12 | 85 | 52.26 (14.25) | 52.00 |
Time spent outdoors (scale 1–7) | 0.06 | 222 | 4.82 (1.15) | 4.83 1 | 162 | 5.14 (1.24) | 5.12 1 | 85 | 5.08 (1.15) | 5.08 |
Participation in organised sports (mins/week) | 0.03 | 208 | 54.68 (63.05) | 56.98 1 | 160 | 38.23 (52.63) | 35.28 1 | 80 | 52.10 (62.85) | 51.82 |
Child Factors | Total Sample | Southern | Central | Northern | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall p-Value | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | |
LM skills (max.46p.) | 0.61 | 225 | 26.12 (7.96) | 26.58 | 172 | 26.33 (8.17) | 25.57 | 76 | 25.93 (8.64) | 26.28 |
OC skills (max. 54p.) | 0.46 | 225 | 26.27 (9.33) | 26.83 | 172 | 29.02 (9.31) | 28.10 | 76 | 26.42 (9.90) | 26.84 |
TGMD-3 total (max. 100p.) | 0.94 | 225 | 52.39 (15.61) | 53.42 | 172 | 55.35 (16.10) | 53.67 | 76 | 52.36 (17.18) | 53.13 |
Time spent outdoors (scale 1–7) | 0.001 | 223 | 4.82 (1.15) | 4.94 1,2 | 170 | 5.55 (1.10) | 5.53 1 | 76 | 5.36 (1.10) | 5.37 2 |
Participation in organised sports (mins/week) | 0.26 | 219 | 55.87 (76.38) | 58.11 | 163 | 46.43 (62.79) | 42.32 | 72 | 44.34 (66.58) | 46.85 |
Child Factors | Total Sample | Metropolitan | Cities | Rural Areas | Countryside | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall p-Value | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | |
LM skills (max.46p.) | 0.076 | 94 | 27.46 (8.35) | 28.67 1,4 | 211 | 29.24 (7.39) | 28.62 2 | 98 | 28.74 (7.75) | 28.30 3,4 | 69 | 29.94 (8.07) | 30.82 1,2,3 |
OC skills (max. 54p.) | 0.054 | 94 | 19.70 (7.84) | 21.05 1,4 | 211 | 22.73 (7.71) | 22.05 2 | 98 | 22.86 (7.25) | 22.36 3,4 | 69 | 24.64 (8.65) | 25.60 1,2,3 |
TGMD-3 total (max. 100p.) | 0.036 | 94 | 47.16 (14.63) | 49.72 1,4 | 211 | 51.98 (13.65) | 50.67 2 | 98 | 51.60 (13.36) | 50.66 3,4 | 69 | 54.58 (14.87) | 56.42 1,2,3 |
Time spent outdoors (scale 1–7) | 0.032 | 93 | 4.77 (1.14) | 4.80 1 | 211 | 5.03 (1.23) | 5.02 | 96 | 4.81 (1.15) | 4.80 2 | 69 | 5.30 (1.09) | 5.32 1,2 |
Participation in organised sports (mins/week) | 0.118 | 88 | 61.08 (67.09) | 65.78 1,2 | 204 | 44.69 (60.61) | 42.67 1 | 89 | 43.16 (48.52) | 41.22 2,3 | 67 | 49.64 (59.94) | 52.18 3 |
Child Factors | Total Sample | Metropolitan | Cities | Rural Areas | Countryside | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Overall p-Value | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | n | Mean (SD) | Adj. Age | |
LM skills (max.46p.) | 0.094 | 95 | 25.68 (8.13) | 26.61 | 210 | 27.29 (7.82) | 26.30 | 85 | 24.41 (8.21) | 24.32 1 | 83 | 25.67 (8.56) | 27.21 1 |
OC skills (max. 54p.) | 0.179 | 95 | 24.39 (9.51) | 25.52 1 | 210 | 29.06 (9.12) | 27.85 | 85 | 26.60 (9.85) | 26.49 | 83 | 26.86 (9.20) | 28.74 1 |
TGMD-3 total (max. 100p.) | 0.110 | 95 | 50.07 (16.33) | 52.13 | 210 | 56.35 (15.40) | 54.15 | 85 | 51.01 (16.62) | 50.51 1 | 83 | 52.53 (15.89) | 55.95 1 |
Time spent outdoors (scale 1–7) | 0.020 | 94 | 4.80 (1.17) | 4.83 1,2 | 210 | 5.40 (1.09) | 5.37 1 | 83 | 5.16 (1.20) | 5.16 3 | 83 | 5.33 (1.07) | 5.38 2,3 |
Participation in organised sports (mins/week) | 0.939 | 92 | 52.49 (66.90) | 57.16 | 200 | 55.25 (75.62) | 50.43 | 83 | 46.47 (69.83) | 46.14 | 79 | 41.27 (59.82) | 48.38 |
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Niemistö, D.; Finni, T.; Haapala, E.A.; Cantell, M.; Korhonen, E.; Sääkslahti, A. Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children—The Skilled Kids Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 1989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111989
Niemistö D, Finni T, Haapala EA, Cantell M, Korhonen E, Sääkslahti A. Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children—The Skilled Kids Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2019; 16(11):1989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111989
Chicago/Turabian StyleNiemistö, Donna, Taija Finni, Eero A. Haapala, Marja Cantell, Elisa Korhonen, and Arja Sääkslahti. 2019. "Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children—The Skilled Kids Study" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 16, no. 11: 1989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111989
APA StyleNiemistö, D., Finni, T., Haapala, E. A., Cantell, M., Korhonen, E., & Sääkslahti, A. (2019). Environmental Correlates of Motor Competence in Children—The Skilled Kids Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(11), 1989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16111989