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Review

Challenges and Threats Facing Gorilla beringei graueri in Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Conservation Strategies

by
Kahindo Tulizo Consolee
1,2,
Armachius James
3,
Arthur Kalonji
2 and
Xiaofeng Luan
1,*
1
School of Ecology and Nature Conservation, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
2
Kahuzi-Biega National Park, Bukavu P.O. Box. 852, Democratic Republic of the Congo
3
Tanzania Agricultural Research Institute, Makutupora Center, Dodoma P.O. Box 1676, Tanzania
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Diversity 2025, 17(4), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040270
Submission received: 7 March 2025 / Revised: 5 April 2025 / Accepted: 8 April 2025 / Published: 11 April 2025
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Abstract

:
Gorillas play important roles in the sustainability of biodiversity and in the cultures of Indigenous communities, offering unique biological behaviors and contributing to forest regeneration. Grauer’s gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri) is one of the flagship species of biodiversity in the Democratic Republic of Congo. In this study, we carried out a systematic review to assess the challenges and threats facing Gorilla beringei graueri, as well as conservation strategies. We used search engines such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, Baidu, and China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI) to screen for literature published in the period between 2000 and 2025. We found that the existence of Grauer’s gorilla is under constant threat from an increasing demand for precious minerals, the establishment of mining sites in the forests, and the establishment of new road networks in the gorillas’ range, as well as from poaching, deforestation, and climate change. These pressures have exacerbated the decline of the Grauer’s gorilla population, necessitating attention from both the DRC and the global community to safeguard this endangered species. Several strategies for the conservation of Grauer’s gorilla are already underway in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park; these aim to reduce or contain the threats and challenges facing Grauer’s gorilla. This comprehensive review serves as a recommendation to Indigenous communities, local people, government agencies, conservation NGOs, and the public, encouraging them to understand the consequences of the decline in the Grauer’s gorilla population and to advocate for urgent and effective conservation strategies.

1. Introduction

Habitat preservation remains a concern for those engaged in species protection and natural resource management. Conservation strategies for flagship species generate particular attention when these species have limited habitats. According to Plumptre [1], the tropical forests of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) are home to the endemic Grauer’s gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri). Grauer’s gorilla is among the animals listed as critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) [1,2]. Grauer’s gorilla is one of the two subspecies of the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei) [3], and it has been studied since the 1970s. However, there have been few reports on the challenges and threats facing the eastern gorilla, compared with western and mountain gorillas [4].
Grauer’s gorillas play important roles in supporting and linking the livelihoods and cultural values of the Indigenous community, and they contribute to forest regeneration and ecosystem health [5,6]. In the DRC, Grauer’s gorillas have been constantly threatened by civil war, armed militias, and prevailing conditions of insecurity [7,8]. During the war, the rebels and the Indigenous peoples in mining camps in the DRC forests relied on hunting Grauer’s gorillas for bushmeat [4]. Conditions of insecurity and the presence of several militia groups across the Grauer’s gorilla range have made it difficult to assess the size of the Grauer’s gorilla population [9]. For instance, when refugees fled the Rwandan genocide to the DRC in 1994, this led to the civil war in the eastern DRC, which has been recurring since 1996 [10]. The consequences of this war have been devastating; these include the deaths of an estimated five million people, an increased trade in illegal bushmeat, insecurity, and deforestation across the DRC [11].
Insecurity in the eastern DRC has resulted in the emergence of many rebel groups, including Nyakareme, the Mai Mai rebels, and M23, as well as militias composed of Indigenous people. Such groups have sought to protect their interests from other armed forces, particularly access to mining sites in the vicinity of the Grauer’s gorillas’ habitats. Artisanal miners and rebels often operate in the dense forests of the parks. They hunt Grauer’s gorillas to feed themselves, claiming that Grauer’s gorillas are easy to kill and provide plentiful meat [12]. Although gorillas are protected by the law, because of their size and their tendency to roam in groups in forests, they are easily poached and killed for bushmeat. They are also easily killed because some populations have become habituated to humans who roam in the vicinity of the forest as it is encroached upon by agricultural land. Humans in these areas also establish mining sites and harvest forest resources for use as timber, firewood, and charcoal [13]. Concern over the status of Gorilla beringei graueri has increased as insecurity continues in the eastern forests of the DRC, especially across the North Kivu and South Kivu provinces [4]. Predictions of a large decline in the number of gorillas have been made; however, these are based on limited data obtained from only a few protected areas [1,14], making it difficult to extrapolate across the Grauer’s gorillas’ range.
The Grauer’s gorilla has an altitudinal range of roughly 600 m to 2900 m above sea level; this overlaps significantly with the altitudinal range of the mountain gorilla (1400–3800 m) [15]. Geographically, populations of Grauer’s gorilla are isolated from mountain gorilla populations, with eastern and western gorillas being separated by about 900 km [16,17]. Grauer’s gorillas are known to feed on herbaceous vegetation, vines, leaves, bark, rotting wood, lianas, and seasonally available fruits, as well as bamboo at higher altitudes, with the occasional consumption of small invertebrates [14]. Due to their affinity for plants in regenerating forests, Grauer’s gorillas are frequently found close to mines, human communities, active or formerly fallowed agricultural land, and other areas where people have disturbed the natural forest [18]. In addition, Grauer’s gorillas search fields opportunistically to graze on crops, such as sugar cane and bananas, in and around the Kahuzi-Biega National Park (NP) [19].
The Kahuzi-Biega NP is located in the eastern part of the DRC and covers three provinces: South Kivu (territories of Kabare, Kalehe, Shabunda, and Walungu); North Kivu (territory of Walikale); and Maniema (territory of Punia). South Kivu province forms the largest part of the Kahuzi-Biega NP. The province has the highest human population density in central Africa, at more than 300 individuals/km2 [20], and is located between 1°36′–2°37′ south and 27°33′–28°46′ east. The Kahuzi-Biega NP is home to many endangered species, including Grauer’s gorilla and several others only found in the Albertine Rift. Numerous watercourses intersperse the Kahuzi-Biega NP, and a National Road crosses the highlands (Figure 1). The park includes two distinct zones: the lowland and highland regions, which are connected by a narrow ecological corridor (Tsivanga sector). The Tsivanga sector zone features an ombrophilous forest, which reaches its highest point at Mount Kahuzi (3308 m). It experiences an Afroalpine climate with occasional night frosts, an average annual rainfall of up to 1900 mm, a long dry season from June to August, and a short dry season in February [21]. In this study, after reviewing the literature, we discuss the challenges and threats facing Grauer’s gorillas, consider human–gorilla interactions, and propose strategies for the conservation of Grauer’s gorillas in DRC forests, particularly in the Kahuzi-Biega NP.

2. Materials and Methods

A comprehensive review of secondary and internet-based literature, books, and technical reports on gorillas was conducted. Published articles were compiled using search engines, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, Baidu, and China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI), using the keywords ‘Gorillas’, ‘Grauer’s gorillas’, or ‘Eastern lowland gorillas’. The keyword selection phase involved an initial search of the four databases using the terms ‘Grauer’s gorillas’, ‘anthropogenic threats’, and ‘strategies for conservation’ (Table 1).
On the basis of their content, compiled documents were assigned to one of three categories which were predefined with reference to previous studies. These categories were (1) Applied, covering topics addressed in this review such as distribution, population, threats, and strategies for conservation; (2) Fundamental, including information about ecology such as site use, interaction, and food; and (3) Documental, including any article referring to gorillas.

3. Results

3.1. Estimates of Grauer’s Gorilla Population in Highland Regions of Kahuzi-Biega NP

Researchers have studied trends in the populations of Grauer’s gorilla in highland regions or sectors of the Kahuzi-Biega NP, as presented in Table 2.

3.2. Main Threats to Grauer’s Gorilla in Kahuzi-Biega NP

The main threats to Grauer’s gorillas have been identified as poaching and mining, as presented in Table 3. Other threats include war (armed militias and rebels), deforestation, forest encroachment by agricultural land, and climate change.

3.3. Overview of Explored Literature

Table 4 shows the literature that was explored. In total, 44 pieces of published literature about Grauer’s gorilla were explored; the greatest number of these were in the Applied category (23 works), followed by the Fundamental (16 works) and Documental categories (5 works), with the percentage abundances being 52.3%, 36.4%, and 11.3%, respectively (Figure 2).
The results were synthesized in a thematic form that enabled us to structure and comprehend the essence of the literature concerning Grauer’s gorillas. We found that in most reviewed works, across all three categories of the literature, threats to Grauer’s gorillas were reported with respect to the following areas: (1) distribution (historical); (2) survival (poaching, mining, zoonotic, health, and climate change), and (3) underlying sustainable conservation (Figure 2).

4. Discussion

The Kahuzi-Biega NP is the home of Grauer’s gorilla, an endangered animal species according to the IUCN [14]. Today, the Grauer’s gorilla population faces a number of threats and challenges which require the urgent attention of conservationists. Further research is also necessary to identify and address the threats and challenges facing the Grauer’s gorilla population [69]. The poaching and killing of gorillas for bushmeat as well as the effects of mining, war (armed militias and rebels), deforestation, and forest encroachment by agricultural land have all impacted Grauer’s gorillas in DRC forests and in the Kahuzi-Biega NP [5]. However, poaching, mining, deforestation, encroachment by agricultural land, and climate change are interrelated.
Previous studies have shown that the extent of the world’s rainforests has declined by 32%, with losses of mountainous forests being particularly severe [70,71]. In addition, rural people depend heavily on forest resources for their survival and livelihood, especially where firewood and charcoal are used as major sources of cooking energy; in such areas, trees may be cut down until forest resources are entirely cleared [29,72]. Grauer’s gorillas are particularly vulnerable to such activities, given their reliance on the forest for their food and habitats. The slow reproductive rate of Grauer’s gorillas is another factor which has pushed this species to the verge of extinction [32]. Female gorillas are able to give birth from around ten years of age, and they have an infant on average every four years [27,73]. During her lifetime, a female gorilla can have up to eight offspring, with 75% of these surviving to maturity [74]. This means that gorillas are especially vulnerable to disturbances in their ranges and habitats; because these have declined by more than 80 % over a single generation, Grauer’s gorilla is now established on the list of critically endangered species [1].

4.1. Poaching of Gorillas for Bushmeat

Following decades of armed conflicts and the emergence of rebel groups in the DRC, local human populations are now subject to extreme poverty, particularly Indigenous communities in the rural settings and villages bordering the national parks and forest reserves. These people now largely depend on poaching to sustain a living [24,73]. In the DRC, subsistence hunting is generally a cultural norm, and bushmeat is nutritionally important to the national population. In the Kahuzi-Biega NP, subsistence poaching is now one of the main threats to the Grauer’s gorilla population, as illustrated in Figure 3.
The Kahuzi-Biega NP was established and gazetted as a national park in the 1970s. Today, the park plays a significant role in the conservation of Grauer’s gorillas. In an attempt to establish the park, hunting, trapping, poaching, fishing, and the cutting of timber were all legally prohibited. However, poverty and insecurity in the DRC region have contributed to continuing illegal activities, mainly the poaching and killing of Grauer’s gorillas and other wildlife facilitated by a black market [11]. The government, therefore, faces continuing difficulties in removing armed rebels living in and around the park. Specifically, the poaching and killing of gorillas has been reported as a major activity within the southern areas of the Kahuzi-Biega NP and is facilitated by the armed rebels and the Indigenous community [36]. Such a level of harvesting is unsustainable for animals with a slow reproductive rate, such as gorillas [35]. We suggest, therefore, that the legal enforcement be enhanced, and community involvement promoted, to sustainably preserve Grauer’s gorillas and address the challenges facing DRC forests, particularly those of the Kahuzi-Biega NP.

4.2. Effect of Mining for Mineral Resources on Distribution of Grauer’s Gorillas

In the Kahuzi-Biega NP, mining activities are widespread, threatening forest conservation efforts. Mining activities also impact the habitats of Grauer’s gorillas, threatening the existence of the species (Figure 4). Mining is widespread within the Kahuzi-Biega NP and is often carried out under the protection of armed groups, such as the Nyakareme rebels [64]. Mining has negative impacts not only on gorillas, but also on biodiversity conservation; it has proved an intractable challenge for the IUCN and for the Congolese Institute for Nature Protection [26]. Groups of armed Nyakareme rebels, amongst others, use secluded forests as hideouts and rear operating bases to facilitate mining and poaching.
Moreover, the park overlaps with deposits of various minerals, including gold and cassiterite, which have attracted illegal mining activities [25]. Mining accelerates forest degradation in the Kahuzi-Biega NP, increasing the threat to gorillas. The commercial interest in extracting minerals overrides conservation considerations, impacting the lives of gorillas and reducing biodiversity [25,28].
Mining activities at all scales involve significant adverse environmental impacts, including deforestation and the degradation of gorillas’ habitats [75]. Forest trees are cut down to prepare landscapes for mining (Figure 4). Mining causes landscape configuration changes, the loss of tree cover, the suppression of natural vegetation, and deforestation, all of which severely fragment the Grauer’s gorillas’ habitats and the overall biodiversity of the Kahuzi-Biega NP [9,66]. These impacts are compounded by the establishment of new roads and villages; these generate more deforestation pressure and encourage in-migration to the Kahuzi-Biega NP. Mining also disrupts water sources and river ecosystems within the Kahuzi-Biega NP. This is because most mining typically involves the use of toxic chemicals to extract minerals, polluting the environment and aquatic life.
The presence of the human population living in and around the Kahuzi-Biega NP means that the economic incentive for mineral extraction overrides efforts to conserve the forests and their local Grauer’s gorilla populations, and it is unlikely that the threat from mining will be resolved at once [76]. Such a resolution may require a commitment to tackle endemic poverty by the DRC government, as well as a collective commitment by the armed rebels to halt mining for the sake of conservation and intervention actions [64]. However, any initiatives to stop mining in the park or in forest areas are strongly dependent on the commitment of the DRC government and the wider international community; without such support, mining may continue to threaten conservation initiatives and the continued existence of Grauer’s gorillas.
Interestingly, in the Itombwe Nature Reserve, artisanal mining activities have been allowed to continue in the reserve’s multiple-use zone [77,78]. This approach has successfully minimized conflicts between the reserve authorities and local peoples, certainly when compared with the Kahuzi-Biega NP, where a more forceful approach has been adopted. Nevertheless, there remains a risk that some of the mining sites could expand into the park’s core conservation zones, where mining is impermissible [14]. In this regard, we suggest that patrols by Kahuzi-Biega NP guards be increased to stop mining in the park [1]. Initiatives adopted to protect the Kahuzi-Biega NP forests and their peripheral populations, and to improve habitat connectivity, are all conservation strategies which may help to guarantee the continued existence of Grauer’s gorillas; as such, they are worthy of further support and institutional engagement.

4.3. Climate Change

The global crisis of climate change poses a threat to forest resources and to the survival of gorillas [79]. Climate change influences ecological systems and characteristics as well as patterns of human settlement, health, and economic activity; as a result, the gorillas’ habitat is impacted. Climate change involves long-term changing weather patterns and an increase in global temperatures, extreme floods and drought events, and the increased frequency and intensity of wildfires [80]. Anthropogenic activities contribute to climate change, raising concerns for the survival of gorilla populations.
Changes that drive deforestation and changes in vegetation may have unfavorable consequences which affect the long-term viability of gorilla habitats (Figure 5). Climate change events are projected to impact the DRC forests, including the Kahuzi-Biega NP and montane forests, which are key habitats for Grauer’s gorillas [81,82]. Almost all montane forests in the eastern highlands have now been destroyed and the land converted for agriculture [83,84]. Because of the impacts of climate change, gorillas, particularly Grauer’s gorillas, are compelled to travel long distances searching for food, altering their feeding preferences and affecting their nesting behavior as well as the variability within their native habitats [85,86]. Climate change is a threat to Grauer’s gorilla both now and in the future because the species is characterized by small populations, long generation times, low reproductive rates, and relatively low rates of genetic variability, all of which limit the ability to adapt to a changing climate [28,41]. For instance, increasing temperatures due to climate change have been reported to cause gorillas to increase their use of drinking water [85]. In the study by Carvalho [87], it was explained that temperature is the most important variable in determining the range of Grauer’s gorillas. In the same work, it was also predicted that Grauer’s gorillas will lose three-quarters of their range as a result of climate change and anthropogenic pressure by 2050 [87].
In DRC forests, climate change indicators include rising temperatures, prolonged dry seasons, decreased precipitation, and substantial seasonal moisture deficits, all of which negatively impact gorillas’ behavior and habitats [30,88]. Climate change also affects the habitats and lives of gorillas through the degradation of natural vegetation due to decreased rainfall and prolonged dry periods. We therefore suggest that climate-informed conservation initiatives for gorillas be adopted. Climate change adaptations might include initiatives to improve the livelihoods of people in the forests and parks, as well as measures to contain the human population pressure. In short, increasing gorilla conservation efforts is essential if the Kahuzi-Biega NP Forest is to have the best chance to survive and remain healthy.

4.4. Addressing the Need for Conservation Strategies

The factors that threaten the survival of gorillas are mainly poaching, mining, forest encroachment by agricultural and grazing land, commercial logging, diseases, deforestation, and climate change. Reversing the decline in the Grauer’s gorilla population might involve considerable effort and require greater levels of protection than those currently in place, if the threat is to be addressed. In the Kahuzi-Biega NP, human activities constantly affect the forest, impacting the habitats and the survival rates of Grauer’s gorillas; specifically, these activities include the following: poaching (Figure 3); mining (Figure 4); logging and forest encroachment by agriculture (Figure 5); tree harvesting for charcoal making; and other human activities (Figure 6). The decline in the gorilla population suggests that gorilla conservation strategies are an immediate but daunting challenge. Therefore, any meaningful efforts for the conservation of Grauer’s gorillas will require a major revolution and a collective commitment by stakeholders.

4.5. Improving Livelihoods of Humans to Protect Gorilla Population

Human capital in the ranges of gorillas, particularly the localities of Grauer’s gorillas, is of the utmost importance in conservation. In implementing solutions, measures have to be taken to sustain population growth, enhance health, alleviate poverty and gender bias, create sustainable land-use efforts, and protect traditional livelihoods. To achieve these objectives, investments by government and non-governmental organizations will be required to educate local residents on the importance of forest conservation and the protection of Grauer’s gorillas. However, there is no single method for achieving sustainable community engagement and thereby preserving the globally significant NP forests. For instance, ecotourism for Grauer’s gorillas may be an effective approach in some localities but not practical in other areas.

4.6. Conservation Value of National Parks: Case of Kahuzi-Biega NP for Grauer’s Gorillas

Reintroductions can be an option in some parks where gorilla species are locally extinct [92]. Also, conservation translocation has been suggested for restoring the ecosystem function and incentivizing habitat protection for gorilla population recovery [93]. However, reintroductions can be costly, and maintaining gorilla populations through long-term forest preservation may be less expensive than reintroduction. The Kahuzi-Biega NP has remained challenged due to the presence of armed rebels, including the Nyakareme, Mai Mai, and M23 groups, among several others. The precarious insecurity in and around the park has contributed to the increased use of resources in the Kahuzi-Biega NP, resulting in degradation of biodiversity [94]. To protect the Kahuzi-Biega NP from threats and to make the best use of resources, the site director of the Kahuzi-Biega NP, the governments of the Kivu provinces, and all conservation stakeholders continue to work collaboratively to protect and conserve the Grauer’s gorillas. The natural resources of Kahuzi-Biega NP have been the subject of many high-level discussions and continued efforts to protect them in a sustainable manner. Meetings and discussions have mainly focused on conservation in the Kahuzi-Biega NP (Figure 7). Batwa Indigenous peoples and other local communities continue to be involved to protect the Kahuzi-Biega NP’s biodiversity, playing a community engagement role. This is because the forests and land of the Kahuzi-Biega NP are essential for the physical, spiritual, and cultural life of the Batwa Indigenous community.
The Governor of the Kivu Provinces implemented various measures through provincial decree No. 24/279/GP/SK of 13 November 2024. This decree protects and prohibits the occupation, invasion, exploitation, marketing, and transport of forest and mining resources in the Kahuzi-Biega NP, as well as certain products destined for the port of Kituku in Goma, North Kivu province, and neighboring countries.

4.7. Reducing Urban Dependence on Forest Resources and Gorilla Habitats

Urban policies must aim at reducing people’s dependence on forest resources and bushmeat to sustain the DRC forests, the Kahuzi-Biega NP, and the existence of Grauer’s gorillas. For example, promoting the global recycling of laptops (computers), cellphones, and other electronic devices may reduce the need for coltan mining in the DRC, which threatens the existence of Grauer’s gorillas and other great apes in the region. Likewise, a cessation of or reduction in the global per capita demand for minerals and tropical hardwoods obtained from regions within gorillas’ ranges should help to alleviate pressures on Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats.

5. Conclusions

Despite the possible extinction of Grauer’s gorillas, conservation strategies remain viable. The Kahuzi-Biega NP is taking positive and hopeful actions to ensure the survival of Grauer’s gorillas. There is hope for the survival of Grauer’s gorillas because of financial investments and the provincial decree No. 24/279/GP/SK of 13 November 2024. This decree protects and forbids the occupation, invasion, exploitation, marketing, and transport of forest and mining resources from the Kahuzi-Biega NP. However, threats such as deforestation, poaching, and mining continue to persist, as does the precarious insecurity situation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, which continuously threatens and challenges populations of Grauer’s gorillas as well as conservation efforts on their behalf.
From this comprehensive review and the reaffirmation of Kivu province’s government to protect Kahuzi-Biega’s biodiversity, we may state that strategies for the conservation of Grauer’s gorillas are key to the sustainability of the park. Indigenous communities, local people, conservation NGOs, and the wider public should all comprehensively understand the challenges and threats to the Grauer’s gorilla population, and urgent and effective conservation strategies should be encouraged. In summary, we recommend continued research to provide up-to-date data and information to contain or eliminate threats and challenges facing Grauer’s gorillas and their habitats in the DRC forests, particularly in the Kahuzi-Biega National Park.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, K.T.C. and X.L.; data curation, K.T.C., X.L., A.J. and A.K.; formal analysis, K.T.C.; funding acquisition, X.L.; methodology, K.T.C., A.K. and A.J.; resources, X.L.; software, K.T.C.; supervision, X.L.; validation, K.T.C., X.L., A.J. and A.K.; visualization, K.T.C. and A.J.; writing—original draft, K.T.C.; writing—review and editing, A.K., K.T.C., A.J. and X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Key Research and Development Program of China, grant number 2022YFF1301405.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data generated.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the Chinese Government Scholarship Council (CSC) for awarding a scholarship. The authors also thank the Kahuzi-Biega National Park for providing the resources and facilities for the success of this work. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Tsivanga highland sector in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
Figure 1. Tsivanga highland sector in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
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Figure 2. Categories of reviewed literature, grouped as Applied, Documental, and Fundamental.
Figure 2. Categories of reviewed literature, grouped as Applied, Documental, and Fundamental.
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Figure 3. Poacher and bushmeat seized by Kahuzi-Biega NP authorities and rangers.
Figure 3. Poacher and bushmeat seized by Kahuzi-Biega NP authorities and rangers.
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Figure 4. Mining activity in Grauer’s gorillas’ habitat in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
Figure 4. Mining activity in Grauer’s gorillas’ habitat in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
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Figure 5. Forest felled for agriculture in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
Figure 5. Forest felled for agriculture in Kahuzi-Biega NP.
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Figure 6. Underlying factors and threats driving decline in Grauer’s gorilla populations in Kahuzi-Biega NP and their consequences and conservation measures following approach previous described by Salafsky et al. [89,90] and Battisti et al. [91].
Figure 6. Underlying factors and threats driving decline in Grauer’s gorilla populations in Kahuzi-Biega NP and their consequences and conservation measures following approach previous described by Salafsky et al. [89,90] and Battisti et al. [91].
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Figure 7. A meeting of the Kahuzi-Biega NP director, members of the Indigenous community, and other local people to promote awareness of conservation efforts for Grauer’s gorilla.
Figure 7. A meeting of the Kahuzi-Biega NP director, members of the Indigenous community, and other local people to promote awareness of conservation efforts for Grauer’s gorilla.
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Table 1. Keyword selection.
Table 1. Keyword selection.
Grauer’s Gorilla (Gorilla beringei graueri)
DistributionThreatsStrategies for conservation
HistoricalPoaching, killing, and deforestationContinue improving the human condition
MiningConservation value of the Kahuzi-Biega NP
Interaction and zoonotic diseasesReducing urban dependence on Kahuzi-Biega NP Forest and gorillas’ habitats
Climate change
Table 2. Estimates of populations of Grauer’s gorilla in highland areas of the Kahuzi-Biega NP.
Table 2. Estimates of populations of Grauer’s gorilla in highland areas of the Kahuzi-Biega NP.
SectorPopulationsReferences
Tsivanga223[22]
258[23]
245[24]
130[25]
163
168[18]
181
200[26]
213[16]
Table 3. Main identified threats to Grauer’s gorilla and their impacts.
Table 3. Main identified threats to Grauer’s gorilla and their impacts.
PoachingReferencesMiningReferences
Disappearance of Grauer’s gorilla; changes in natural behavior.[27]Impacts not only on gorillas but also on biodiversity conservation.[22]
Killing of gorillas for bushmeat; capture of infant gorillas.[11]Threats to integrity of the Kahuzi-Biega NP.[23]
Poaching facilitated by market in urban areas.[24]Impacts on gorillas’ lives; deforestation.[11,25]
Armed conflict in civil war; loss of Grauer’s gorilla habitats.[4]Degradation of Grauer’s gorilla habitats; encroachment on park by agricultural expansion.[26,28]
Major activity within the southern Kahuzi-Biega NP.[1]Disruption of local water sources and river ecosystems.[4]
Decline in Grauer’s gorilla population.[4,13]Pollution of the environment and aquatic life.
Table 4. A list of published works (n = 44), beginning with the most recent.
Table 4. A list of published works (n = 44), beginning with the most recent.
No.ReferencesAuthors and YearsTitleJournalLiterature Category
01[29]Simpson et al. (2025)Indigenous forest destroyers or guardians? The Indigenous Batwa and their ancestral forests in Kahuzi-Biega National Park, DRCWorld DevelopmentApplied
02[30]Kiribou et al. (2024)Exposure of African ape sites to climate change impactsPLOS ClimateApplied
03[31]Esposito, M.M. et al. (2023)The impact of human activities on zoonotic infection transmissionsAnimalsApplied
04[32]Morrison, R. et al. (2023)Female age and reproductive stage influence copulation patterns in mountain gorillas’ variable mating systemBehavioral Ecology and SociobiologyFundamental
05[33]Zhang, R. et al. (2022)UAV Swarm Task Assignment Method Based on Artificial Gorilla Troops OptimizerICUSApplied
06[34]Legner, L. (2022)Inevitable or Avoidable? How the Illegal Wildlife Trade Is Facilitating the Spread of Zoonotic Diseases and How the Next Pandemic Can Be AvoidedMichigan State Law ReviewApplied
07[35]Brittain, S. et al. (2022)The drivers of wild meat consumption in rural Cameroon: Insights for wild meat alternative project designConservation Science and PracticeApplied
08[36]Williams et al. (2022)Reconsidering priorities for forest conservation when considering the threats of mining and armed conflictAmbioApplied
09[37]Popoola, I.O. et al. (2022)A Review of sensory and consumer-related factors influencing the acceptance of red meats from alternative animal speciesFood Reviews InternationalFundamental
10[38]Alhaji, N.B. et al. (2022)Risk assessment and preventive health behaviors toward COVID-19 amongst bushmeat handlers in Nigerian wildlife markets: Drivers and One Health challengesActa TropicaDocumental
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MDPI and ACS Style

Consolee, K.T.; James, A.; Kalonji, A.; Luan, X. Challenges and Threats Facing Gorilla beringei graueri in Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Conservation Strategies. Diversity 2025, 17, 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040270

AMA Style

Consolee KT, James A, Kalonji A, Luan X. Challenges and Threats Facing Gorilla beringei graueri in Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Conservation Strategies. Diversity. 2025; 17(4):270. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040270

Chicago/Turabian Style

Consolee, Kahindo Tulizo, Armachius James, Arthur Kalonji, and Xiaofeng Luan. 2025. "Challenges and Threats Facing Gorilla beringei graueri in Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Conservation Strategies" Diversity 17, no. 4: 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040270

APA Style

Consolee, K. T., James, A., Kalonji, A., & Luan, X. (2025). Challenges and Threats Facing Gorilla beringei graueri in Kahuzi-Biega National Park and Conservation Strategies. Diversity, 17(4), 270. https://doi.org/10.3390/d17040270

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