Tryptophan and Substance Abuse: Mechanisms and Impact
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. General Effects of Addiction on the Body
3. Tryptophan and Its Metabolites
4. Tryptophan and Addiction: METH Addiction as an Example
4.1. Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptophan)
4.2. Melatonin
4.3. Kynurenine
4.4. Kynurenic Acid
4.5. Xanthurenic Acid
4.6. 3-hydroxyanthranillic Acid
4.7. Quinolinic Acid
4.8. Picolinic Acid
4.9. Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD+)
4.10. Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species
5. Tryptophan Metabolites and Treatment Options for Addiction
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Drug | Mechanism of Action | Chemical Structure | Mode of Administration | Side Effects | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alcohol | Promotion of inhibitory neurotransmission | Oral | Liver cirrhosis Neurotoxicity Drowsiness Loss of consciousness Gaps in memory | [6,18,19] | |
Caffeine | Release of dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline | Oral | Increased vigilance and metabolic activity Insomnia Nervousness Restlessness Nausea | [20,21,22,23] | |
Cocaine | Potentiation of dopamine and norepinephrine | Injection Inhalation | Euphoria Increased concentration Pupillary dilation | [24,25] | |
Heroin | Stimulation of opioid receptor | Injection Inhalation | Analgesia Depression Pupillary constriction Pneumonia Increased heart rate Difficulty sleeping Difficulty breathing Dry mouth | [10,26,27] | |
Marijuana | Stimulation of cannabinoid receptor type 1 and cannabinoid receptor type 2 | Oral Smoke | Tachycardia High blood pressure Decrease in saccadic accuracy Difficulty concentrating Hallucinations Abnormal happiness Depression | [28,29,30] | |
Methamphetamine | Catecholamine potentiation | Injection Inhalation Oral Intranasal sniffing | Depression Euphoria Pupillary dilation Cardiovascular diseases | [31,32,33] | |
Nicotine | Nicotinic acetylcholine agonist | Oral Smoke | Delayed coronary healing Hypertension Tachycardia Smoke-associated dryness | [34,35,36] |
Drug | Tryptophan Metabolite | Ref. |
---|---|---|
METH | 5-HT, KA, and QA | [132,133] |
Alcohol | 5-HT, KA, 3-HK, and 3-HAA | [84,123] |
Marijuana | IDO 1, KA, and QA | [134,135] |
Heroin | QA and 5-HIAA | [136] |
Nicotine | KA, 5-HT, KYN, HKY, and 3-HAA | [137] |
Caffeine | KA, 5-HT, 5-HIAA, and QA | [138,139] |
Cocaine | KA, KYN, 5-HT, and 5-HIAA | [140,141] |
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Davidson, M.; Rashidi, N.; Hossain, M.K.; Raza, A.; Nurgali, K.; Apostolopoulos, V. Tryptophan and Substance Abuse: Mechanisms and Impact. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032737
Davidson M, Rashidi N, Hossain MK, Raza A, Nurgali K, Apostolopoulos V. Tryptophan and Substance Abuse: Mechanisms and Impact. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2023; 24(3):2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032737
Chicago/Turabian StyleDavidson, Majid, Niloufar Rashidi, Md Kamal Hossain, Ali Raza, Kulmira Nurgali, and Vasso Apostolopoulos. 2023. "Tryptophan and Substance Abuse: Mechanisms and Impact" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 3: 2737. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24032737