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Keywords = wood-frame windows

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19 pages, 2000 KiB  
Article
Window Frame Design Optimization Analysis Based on Hygrothermal Performance and the Level(s) Framework
by Konstantin Verichev, Carmen Díaz-López, Andrés García-Ruíz and Francisca Valdenegro
Buildings 2025, 15(12), 2126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122126 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 386
Abstract
This study investigates the hygrothermal performance of window frames to assess their capacity to prevent surface condensation—a critical factor for indoor air quality and building durability, particularly in humid climates. Driven by the practical need to replace existing aluminum frames with more sustainable [...] Read more.
This study investigates the hygrothermal performance of window frames to assess their capacity to prevent surface condensation—a critical factor for indoor air quality and building durability, particularly in humid climates. Driven by the practical need to replace existing aluminum frames with more sustainable alternatives, the research evaluates standard aluminum frames against modified timber frames designed to replicate the aluminum geometry. Using daily temperature and humidity data from Valdivia, Chile (2023)—a city with a temperate oceanic and humid climate—interior surface temperatures were simulated with HTflux software and compared against dew point values over a relative humidity (RH) range from 40% to 80%. A novel methodology is proposed for verifying the hygrothermal behavior of window frames based on annual performance analysis and highlighting the need to optimize window design according to specific local climate conditions. The results indicate that modified timber frames exhibited consistently lower average interior surface temperatures (by 1.2 °C) and a significantly higher risk of surface condensation compared to aluminum frames, particularly at typical comfort-level indoor humidity conditions (e.g., 167 vs. 100 condensation days at 50% RH). While both materials presented a high risk of condensation under extreme humidity conditions (80% RH), timber frames showed potentially greater severity of condensation. These findings underscore that the proposed timber frame modification is not hygrothermally adequate without strict control of indoor humidity. Anchored in the Level(s) framework, the study emphasizes the critical influence of geometric design on material performance and advocates for holistic, sustainable construction practices that balance energy efficiency, environmental impact, and occupant comfort. It highlights the need for integrated design solutions and effective moisture management to ensure building resilience in humid environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Trends and Prospects in Indoor Environment of Buildings)
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23 pages, 3343 KiB  
Article
Study of Various Types of Glazing in a Building Constructed Using Hybrid Technology with a Large Window Area
by Miroslaw Zukowski
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 4488; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15084488 - 18 Apr 2025
Viewed by 533
Abstract
Hybrid building construction, in which the steel frame is filled with modular panels made of wood, is a relatively new technical solution. This type of structure allows the integration of large window surfaces. The aim of this study is to indicate the optimal [...] Read more.
Hybrid building construction, in which the steel frame is filled with modular panels made of wood, is a relatively new technical solution. This type of structure allows the integration of large window surfaces. The aim of this study is to indicate the optimal glazing system, taking into account energy consumption, thermal comfort and economic indicators. A house made using new hybrid technology with an area of 152.4 m2, located in Bialystok (Northeastern Poland) and in Kiruna (Northern Sweden), was selected as the reference object. Energy simulations of this building were performed with DesignBuilder v. 6.1.8.021 software. Due to the large format of the glazing, the assessment of the thermal environment was performed using the PMV index. An economic analysis aimed at selecting the optimal type of glazing was carried out. It was based on the most commonly used indicators such as LCC, NPV and IRR. The results of this study indicated that the selection of triple-glazed windows in the reference house reduced energy demand by over 22% for Bialystok and about 24% for Kiruna compared to double-glazed windows. Even greater effects can be achieved by using quadruple-glazed windows, as they provide energy savings of 36% and 39%, respectively, for these locations. The results of the analysis performed for a 2% increase in energy prices showed that triple and quadruple windows had a similar LCC value when the discount rate was lower than 2.5% for the Bialystok site. Quadruple-glazed windows were the best option for the Kiruna site when the discount rate was less than 5%. This research study found that, assuming a stable financial situation and a small increase in energy prices, it is recommended to use triple-glazed windows in the climate of Northeastern Poland. In more severe weather conditions, for example those characteristic of the area of Northern Sweden, quadruple-glazed windows are recommended. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Efficiency in Buildings and Its Sustainable Development)
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23 pages, 8981 KiB  
Article
Analysis of the Strength and Quality Properties of Welded PVC Profiles with Glass Fiber Composite Reinforcement in the Context of Milling and Weld Head Feed
by Marek Kozielczyk, Kinga Mencel, Jakub Kowalczyk and Marta Paczkowska
Materials 2025, 18(6), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18061297 - 15 Mar 2025
Viewed by 651
Abstract
Building materials, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), play a key role in construction engineering, influencing the durability, esthetics, and functionality of structures. PVC stands out for its lightness, thermal insulation, and corrosion resistance. This makes it competitive with wood, aluminum, or steel, particularly in [...] Read more.
Building materials, including polyvinyl chloride (PVC), play a key role in construction engineering, influencing the durability, esthetics, and functionality of structures. PVC stands out for its lightness, thermal insulation, and corrosion resistance. This makes it competitive with wood, aluminum, or steel, particularly in the manufacture of window joinery. One of the key technological processes in the processing of PVC profiles is welding, the quality of which depends on the precise control of parameters such as the temperature, time, and pressure regulating the speed of the welding heads. In modern welding machines, the use of servo drives guarantees the adequate precision and repeatability of the process, which allows better adjustment to technological requirements than in older machines. This study aimed to determine the effect of the heating head feed rate for selected milling depths on the quality and strength of window frame welds. A criterion in the assessment of the strength of the window frames was the result of failure load tests on the welds. In addition, the tests took into account the quality of the welds. The tests showed that the welding head feed rate of 0.25 mm/s generated the highest-quality welds, taking into account the continuity and symmetry of the weld and its highest failure load. When milling the composite to a depth of 1 mm, the average value of the failure load was 3637 N. Meanwhile, for speeds of 0.19 mm/s and 0.31 mm/s, it was 3157 N and 3033 N, respectively. For the 0.5 mm milling variant and without milling the composite, the average load values were significantly smaller. Full article
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15 pages, 3074 KiB  
Article
A Case Study on Integrating an Eco-Design Tool into the Construction Decision-Making Process
by Kétlin Cornely, Guilherme Ascensão and Victor M. Ferreira
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(22), 10583; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142210583 - 16 Nov 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1841
Abstract
To enhance the sustainability of construction and meet the sector’s environmental agenda, it is essential to comprehensively scrutinize the environmental, social, and economic impacts of construction projects from the project’s design stage. Such assessment is of utmost importance to minimize the impacts of [...] Read more.
To enhance the sustainability of construction and meet the sector’s environmental agenda, it is essential to comprehensively scrutinize the environmental, social, and economic impacts of construction projects from the project’s design stage. Such assessment is of utmost importance to minimize the impacts of both new construction and rehabilitation projects and is particularly critical during the selection of building materials and construction solutions. This work reports improvements in functionality and user-friendliness of an eco-design tool (UAveiroGreenBuilding) targeting the construction/rehabilitation sector and previously developed within our research group. The optimized version of the eco-design tool underwent validation through the assessment of competitive window frame materials (e.g., wood, PVC, and aluminum) for potential implementation in a rehabilitation project. Windows with PVC frames were identified as the preferred window configuration due to their superior environmental performance and favorable economic profile. Additionally, a digital communication interface was developed to connect the eco-design tool with building information modeling (BIM) projects, achieved through a routine integrated using a Dynamo application. Such successful integration not only streamlined and expedited the data transfer process by obviating the need for manual input but it also enabled the storage of environmental data throughout the life cycle of the project using a simple and reliable data storage protocol. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)
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20 pages, 4513 KiB  
Article
Supporting Circular Economy Principles by Recycling Window Frames into Particleboard
by Anita Wronka and Grzegorz Kowaluk
Materials 2024, 17(16), 4132; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17164132 - 21 Aug 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1446
Abstract
The aim of the study was to identify limiting factors for reusing wood through the recycling of window frames by conducting research under fully controlled conditions. The research involved manufacturing new window frames, seasoning them, and then shredding them into wood particles to [...] Read more.
The aim of the study was to identify limiting factors for reusing wood through the recycling of window frames by conducting research under fully controlled conditions. The research involved manufacturing new window frames, seasoning them, and then shredding them into wood particles to prepare a three-layer particleboard. The proportion of wood particles in recycling was 0, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 parts by weight of the manufactured particleboard. Mechanical property tests were conducted: modulus of elasticity (MOE) and modulus of rupture (MOR), internal bond (IB), screw withdrawal resistance (SWR), and physical properties: density profile (DP), thickness swelling (TS) after water immersion, water absorption (WA), as well as formaldehyde emission and total volatile organic compound (TVOCs) tests. The research indicates a significant potential for utilizing wood from this sector of the wood industry, particularly considering variants with a higher proportion of recycled wood. MOR and MOE results are most promising for variants above 50 parts by weight of recycled wood. Based on the results obtained, it is clear that the production process should be improved or the raw material modified to enhance the internal bonding of particleboard, as these results were the weakest. Thus, recycled wood from window joinery has the potential to be reincarnated as particleboard, which continues to be widely used in their production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modern Wood-Based Materials for Sustainable Building)
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24 pages, 16564 KiB  
Article
Traditional Architectural Heritage Conservation and Green Renovation with Eco Materials: Design Strategy and Field Practice in Cultural Tibetan Town
by Kai Xie, Ran Xiong, Yan Bai, Menglong Zhang, Yin Zhang and Wenyang Han
Sustainability 2024, 16(16), 6834; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166834 - 9 Aug 2024
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2683
Abstract
With the rapid advancement of rural revitalization in China, protecting regional culture and construction techniques of traditional ethnic groups, while incorporating green energy-saving concepts, has become increasingly vital. With Sware ITES2023 as the simulation tool, this article conducts a comparative study on the [...] Read more.
With the rapid advancement of rural revitalization in China, protecting regional culture and construction techniques of traditional ethnic groups, while incorporating green energy-saving concepts, has become increasingly vital. With Sware ITES2023 as the simulation tool, this article conducts a comparative study on the green building technology and thermal comfort of traditional Tibetan residential houses in Songpan, Sichuan Province, and the new residential houses that villagers have incessantly renovated and built in the past two decades, thus demonstrating the advantages and disadvantages of traditional houses and newly-built houses in terms of green building technology elements, such as stone and wood structures, roof floors, walls, doors, and windows, therefore developing an optimized design scheme, which includes the eastern direction of a building’s orientation, concrete frame and wooden structure, brick wall and stone masonry, and optimized door and window size selection. This scheme will improve indoor thermal comfort by two to three times by calculation. Through preliminary simulation and deduction, the optimized design scheme combines traditional architectural culture and ethnic characteristics with green and energy-saving concepts. This provides a design paradigm that can be promoted and popularized for the construction of residential buildings in high-altitude ethnic areas of western Sichuan and also lays the foundation for future protection and research of traditional residential architecture. Full article
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22 pages, 2566 KiB  
Review
Optimizing the Performance of Window Frames: A Comprehensive Review of Materials in China
by Zhen Wang, Lihong Yao, Yongguang Shi, Dongxia Zhao and Tianyu Chen
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(14), 6091; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146091 - 12 Jul 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2576
Abstract
As the construction industry places increasing emphasis on environmental conservation and sustainability, this trend has spurred profound research into the optimization of door and window performance. One of the critical components of windows is their frames. Over the past several decades, the design [...] Read more.
As the construction industry places increasing emphasis on environmental conservation and sustainability, this trend has spurred profound research into the optimization of door and window performance. One of the critical components of windows is their frames. Over the past several decades, the design of window frames has undergone significant innovations, ranging from introducing new materials to novel design concepts. The performance of window frames is typically influenced by materials, structural design, and the surrounding environment. Consequently, this paper analyzes the common window frame materials in Chinese civil buildings through investigation. It explores commonly used types of window frames available in the market, focusing on their materials and structural designs. It analyzes issues observed during their usage, integrates findings from existing research, and discusses the performance of window frame materials. Additionally, it explores improvement strategies to meet the evolving demands of contemporary and future architectural doors and windows, providing valuable reference points for designers. Finally, approaching the discussion from a sustainable development perspective, the paper evaluates the environmental impact of wood, aluminum alloy, polymer, and composite window frame materials. It emphasizes that wood- and aluminum-clad wood windows represent sustainable options with versatile applications in diverse scenarios. Full article
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12 pages, 654 KiB  
Article
Pyrolysis of Specific Non-Recyclable Waste Materials: Energy Recovery and Detailed Product Characteristics
by Iva Janáková, Martin Čech, Šárka Grabovská, Oldřich Šigut, Pavel Sala and Agnieszka Kijo-Kleczkowska
Materials 2024, 17(8), 1752; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17081752 - 11 Apr 2024
Viewed by 1513
Abstract
This study explores the pyrolysis process applied to various non-utilized waste materials, specifically focusing on separated plastics from municipal waste, wood waste (including pallets and window frames), paper rejects, and automotive carpets. Different combinations of these waste materials were subjected to pyrolysis, a [...] Read more.
This study explores the pyrolysis process applied to various non-utilized waste materials, specifically focusing on separated plastics from municipal waste, wood waste (including pallets and window frames), paper rejects, and automotive carpets. Different combinations of these waste materials were subjected to pyrolysis, a process involving high-temperature treatment (600 °C) in a nitrogen atmosphere. The resulting products, including biochar, gas, and liquid fractions, as well as the residual waste materials, underwent comprehensive analysis. The evaluation of pyrolysis products emphasizes their quality, energy content, and potential applications. Notably, the pyrolysis gas derived from the combination of separated municipal plastics and waste wood exhibited the highest calorific value at 49.45 MJ/m3. Additionally, Mixture 2, consisting of plastic and wood waste, demonstrated the highest calorific value for the pyrolysis condensate, reaching 30.62 MJ/kg. Moreover, Mixture 3, benefiting from biochar utilization as a sorbent, displayed the highest iodine value at 90.01 mg/g. Full article
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14 pages, 3870 KiB  
Article
Analysis Behavior of Openings on Full-Size Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) Frame Shear Walls Tested Monotonically
by Rudi Dungani, Sulistyono, Tati Karliati, Yoyo Suhaya, Jamaludin Malik, Alpian and Wahyu Supriyati
Forests 2023, 14(1), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/f14010097 - 4 Jan 2023
Viewed by 2611
Abstract
Walls, as components of the lateral-force-resisting system of a building, are defined as shear walls. This study aims to determine the behavior of shear wall panel cross-laminated-timber-based mangium wood (Acacia mangium Willd) (CLT-mangium) in earthquake-resistant prefabricated houses. The earthquake performance of CLT [...] Read more.
Walls, as components of the lateral-force-resisting system of a building, are defined as shear walls. This study aims to determine the behavior of shear wall panel cross-laminated-timber-based mangium wood (Acacia mangium Willd) (CLT-mangium) in earthquake-resistant prefabricated houses. The earthquake performance of CLT mangium frame shear walls panels has been studied using monotonic tests. The shear walls were constructed using CLT-mangium measuring 2400 mm × 1200 mm × 68 mm with various design patterns (straight sheathing, diagonal sheathing/45°, windowed shear wall with diagonal pattern and a door shear wall with a diagonal pattern). Shear wall testing was carried out using a racking test, and seismic force calculations were obtained using static equivalent earthquake analysis. CLT-mangium sheathing installed horizontally (straight sheathing) is relatively weak compared to the diagonal sheathing, but it is easier and more flexible to manufacture. The diagonal sheathing type is stronger and stiffer because it has triangulation properties, such as truss properties, but is more complicated to manufacture (less flexible). The type A design is suitable for low-intensity zones (2), and types B, D, E1 and E2 are suitable for moderate-intensity zones (3, 4), and type C is suitable for severe-intensity zones (5). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Glulam Beams in Wood Building Industry)
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23 pages, 8029 KiB  
Article
Doweled cross Laminated Timber (DCLT) Building Air Tightness and Energy Efficiency Measurements: Case Study in Poland
by Jadwiga Świrska-Perkowska, Anna Wicher, Sławomir Pochwała, Stanisław Anweiler and Michał Böhm
Energies 2022, 15(23), 9029; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239029 - 29 Nov 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3153
Abstract
A contemporary challenge for the construction industry is to develop a technology based on natural building materials which at the same time provides high energy efficiency. This paper presents the results of an airtightness test and a thermal imaging study of a detached [...] Read more.
A contemporary challenge for the construction industry is to develop a technology based on natural building materials which at the same time provides high energy efficiency. This paper presents the results of an airtightness test and a thermal imaging study of a detached house built with technology using cross laminated dowelled timber panels. The thermal conductivity coefficients of the wood wool used to insulate the walls and ceiling of the building have also been measured, the linear heat transfer coefficients of the structural nodes have been numerically determined, and calculations have been made regarding the energy efficiency of the building. On the basis of the research, it was found that the air exchange rate in the analyzed building n50 is at the level of 4.77 h−1. Air leaks were also observed in the places of connection of longitudinal walls with the roof and at the junction of window frames with external walls. The experimentally determined thermal conductivity coefficient of the wood wool was ~10% higher than that declared by the manufacturer. Calculations for the energy performance certificate showed that an increase of ~10% in the thermal conductivity coefficient of the wood wool used to insulate the building results in a heating demand increase of 2.1%. It was also found that changing the value of the parameter n50 from 1.0 h−1 to 4.77 h−1 leads to a 40.1% increase in heat demand for heating the building. At the same time, the indicators for final energy demand EK and non-renewable primary energy demand EP increase by 18.1%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the 54th Inter-University Metrology Conference)
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14 pages, 6081 KiB  
Article
Experimental Investigation of Thermal Bridges and Heat Transfer through Window Frame Elements at Achieving Energy Saving
by Anastasios Moumtzakis, Stamatis Zoras, Vasilis Evagelopoulos and Argyro Dimoudi
Energies 2022, 15(14), 5055; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15145055 - 11 Jul 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2394
Abstract
Windows are responsible for significant amounts of energy loss through typical building envelopes. There have been multiple studies on heat loss through the glazing unit and frame system. This study presents an experimental investigation of a window unit and focuses specifically on the [...] Read more.
Windows are responsible for significant amounts of energy loss through typical building envelopes. There have been multiple studies on heat loss through the glazing unit and frame system. This study presents an experimental investigation of a window unit and focuses specifically on the conductance between the structural elements and the frame system of a conventional house in the city of Xanthi, northern Greece. It is obvious that even a perfect window system cannot reduce heat transfer between the base of the frame and the upper surface of the floor. The experimental and simulation procedure of this project includes the installation of an insulating layer in front of the window unit for a variety of frames (solid wood, aluminum, PVC, etc.) at different distances. The main objective of this paper is to determine how effective an insulating barrier can be in respect to different types of frame, glazing, and weather conditions for the control of heat loss. Through the application of this technique, in combination with an appropriate insulating frame and window unit, designers can control the temperature inside the room at close proximity to the windows, in order to contribute to energy saving, aiming towards a building with zero energy demand. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section G: Energy and Buildings)
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11 pages, 841 KiB  
Article
Study on Wood in Houses as Carbon Storage to Support Climate Stabilisation: Study in Four Residences around Jakarta Municipal City
by Jamaludin Malik, Supriyanto, Adi Santoso, Ignasia Maria Sulastiningsih, Achmad Supriadi, Deazy Rachmi Trisatya, Ratih Damayanti, Efrida Basri, Saefudin, Novitri Hastuti, Sigit Baktya Prabawa, Sona Suhartana and Rudi Dungani
Forests 2022, 13(7), 1016; https://doi.org/10.3390/f13071016 - 28 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2475
Abstract
Global agreements mandate the international community, including Indonesia, to commit to reducing the risks and impacts of climate change. Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) will contribute to the achievement of the Convention’s goals by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing climate resilience. [...] Read more.
Global agreements mandate the international community, including Indonesia, to commit to reducing the risks and impacts of climate change. Indonesia’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) will contribute to the achievement of the Convention’s goals by reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increasing climate resilience. This commitment must be supported by a wide range of actions, including the use of timber. Despite the fact that wood contains carbon, limited information is currently available on the size of the wood utilisation subsector’s contribution to reducing GHG emissions. More research is needed on the magnitude of wood products’ contribution to climate change mitigation. This study assessed the amount of carbon stored in wood used as a building material. Purposive sampling was used to select the cities with rapid housing development surrounding Jakarta’s capital city, i.e., the Bekasi District, East Jakarta City, Depok City, and Bogor District. The amount of carbon stored in wood was calculated according to EN 16449:2014-06 and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS/EDX) analysis. Results show that wood is currently only used in door frames, door leaves, window frames, shutters, and vents. The carbon stored on the components ranges from 450 to 680 kg (average of 554.50 kg) in each housing unit, according to the EN 16449:2014-06 calculation. The weight range is between 130 and 430 kg (average of 400.42 kg) according to EDX/S carbon analysis. With an increase in housing needs of 800,000 units per year, this amount has the potential to store 0.44 million tons of carbon over the lifespan of the products. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovations in the Development of Sustainable Timber Products)
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17 pages, 2505 KiB  
Article
Cost Optimized Building Energy Retrofit Measures and Primary Energy Savings under Different Retrofitting Materials, Economic Scenarios, and Energy Supply
by Leif Gustavsson and Chiara Piccardo
Energies 2022, 15(3), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031009 - 29 Jan 2022
Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4211
Abstract
We analyze conventional retrofit building materials, aluminum, rock, and glass wool materials and compared such materials with wood-based materials to understand the lifecycle primary energy implications of moving from non-renewable to wood-based materials. We calculate cost optimum retrofit measures for a multi-apartment building [...] Read more.
We analyze conventional retrofit building materials, aluminum, rock, and glass wool materials and compared such materials with wood-based materials to understand the lifecycle primary energy implications of moving from non-renewable to wood-based materials. We calculate cost optimum retrofit measures for a multi-apartment building in a lifecycle perspective, and lifecycle primary energy savings of each optimized measure. The retrofit measures consist of the thermal improvement of windows with varied frame materials, as well as extra insulation of attic floor, basement walls, and external walls with varied insulation materials. The most renewable-based heat supply is from a bioenergy-based district heating (DH) system. We use the marginal cost difference method to calculate cost-optimized retrofit measures. The net present value of energy cost savings of each measure with a varied energy performance is calculated and then compared with the calculated retrofit cost to identify the cost optimum of each measure. In a sensitivity analysis, we analyze the cost optimum retrofit measures under different economic and DH supply scenarios. The retrofit costs and primary energy savings vary somewhat between non-renewable and wood-based retrofit measures but do not influence the cost optimum levels significantly, as the economic parameters do. The lifecycle primary use of wood fiber insulation is about 76% and 80% less than for glass wool and rock wool, respectively. A small-scale DH system gives higher primary energy and cost savings compared to larger DH systems. The optimum final energy savings, in one of the economic scenarios, are close to meeting the requirements in one of the Swedish passive house standards. Full article
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28 pages, 12342 KiB  
Article
Colour and Light in Berlin and Wrocław (Breslau) Department Stores Built between 1927 and 1930
by Krystyna Kirschke and Paweł Kirschke
Arts 2022, 11(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/arts11010012 - 5 Jan 2022
Viewed by 6015
Abstract
This paper presents the theoretical assumptions and design praxis concerning colour schemes used in the multi-threaded Moderne, Streamline Moderne and Art Deco styles, which were used in Germany during the interwar period to design commercial facilities. We based our analysis on selected cases [...] Read more.
This paper presents the theoretical assumptions and design praxis concerning colour schemes used in the multi-threaded Moderne, Streamline Moderne and Art Deco styles, which were used in Germany during the interwar period to design commercial facilities. We based our analysis on selected cases of department stores built in the years 1927–1930 in Berlin and Wrocław (Breslau at the time). Streamline Moderne and Art Deco, which was present in Germany alongside Expressionism, operated using a simple spatial structure that followed the precepts formulated by the Bauhaus: it featured rhythmically divided, disciplined facades clad in ceramics, sandstone or travertine, as well as large storefront windows with brass frames. These Modernist compositions were enriched with ceramic or brass cornices and friezes, overhangs and full-figure sculptures that were often gilded. The buildings’ interiors, designed following the principles of efficiency and functionality, had spatially accentuated and colour-marked entrance zones and grand, glazed courtyards that were given an expressive décor via ceramics, stone or exotic wood. The expression of these compositions was underscored by linear illumination and cascade-like chandeliers that formed light sculptures. In our paper, we also presented problems associated with the contemporary revitalisation and reconstruction of such buildings. We specifically focused on research findings that identified original ceramics production technologies and methods that allowed the recreation of the texture and colour of the facade of the A. Wertheim department store in Wrocław. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Color in Architecture: Theory and Practice)
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23 pages, 16382 KiB  
Article
Seismic Resistance of Timber Frames with Mud and Stone Infill Walls in a Chinese Traditional Village Dwelling
by Yinlan Shen, Xingchen Yan, Piyong Yu, Hui Liu, Guofang Wu and Wei He
Buildings 2021, 11(12), 580; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings11120580 - 25 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4783
Abstract
Traditional Chinese wood residences consist of timber frames with masonry infill walls or other types of infill, representing valuable heritage. A field investigation of traditional village dwellings in northern China consisting of timber frames with mud and stone infill walls was conducted. Their [...] Read more.
Traditional Chinese wood residences consist of timber frames with masonry infill walls or other types of infill, representing valuable heritage. A field investigation of traditional village dwellings in northern China consisting of timber frames with mud and stone infill walls was conducted. Their construction characteristics are reported, and static cyclic tests were performed on two full-size wood-stone hybrid walls with different configurations (exterior transverse wall and internal transverse wall) and no openings (doors or windows). Their failure mechanics and seismic capacity, i.e., the strength, stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation, were investigated. The results are compared with a previous experimental study of two full-size timber frames with the same traditional structure but no infill to determine the effect of the mud and stone infill on the lateral resistance. The experimental results indicate that the stone infill has a critical influence on the lateral performance of traditional village buildings, resulting in a high lateral stiffness, high strength (>20 kN), and a high ductility ratio (>10). An increase in the vertical load leads to an increase in the lateral resistance of the timber frame with infill walls, larger for the internal transverse wall than the external gable wall. The incompatibility of the deformation between the timber frame and stone infill is the main failure reason, resulting in falling stones and collapse with undamaged timber frames. Suggestions are provided for the protection and repair of traditional wood residences in northern China. Full article
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