Search Results (22)

The article begins by examining Ricoeur’s critique of the Cartesian understanding of the will, which ultimately leads Ricoeur to explore Aristotle’s distinction between voluntary and involuntary acts. Later, Aquinas integrates Aristotle’s insights into a creator/creatures framework by linking voluntary acts to the pursuit of beatitude and by integrating the affective and rational elements of human action in the reflective process that precedes action. In a different metaphysical context, Confucian accounts of moral agency, particularly in the Analects and the Mencius, highlight the role of bodily dispositions, affective responses, and ritualized learning in moral cultivation. Without sharply distinguishing between voluntary and involuntary acts, Confucianism views moral development as harmonizing inner movements through learning and ritual practices. But in Confucianism, too, shaping dispositions and evaluations of possible behaviors helps consider the agent as a whole. These examinations are possible because traditional resources provide a framework. From this perspective, François Noël (1651–1729), who like Descartes trained within a Jesuit scholastic context, provides a unique synthesis. In the Third Treatise on Chinese Ethics of his Philosophia Sinica, Noël interprets Confucian texts through the lens of Aristotelian and Scholastic frameworks, using Chinese examples to illustrate distinctions among voluntary actions: free, natural, spontaneous, and strictly voluntary. Noël seeks to show the value of ancient Chinese texts, their Neo-Confucian commentaries, and their compatibility with his tradition. By doing so, he also integrates Confucian moral psychology with the scholastic framework, proposing an anthropology that preserves the embodied, affective dimensions of agency while trusting the accountability of rationality, the ability of the agent to integrate different aspects of human life in a practical unity: the one able to take action. Full article

This paper examines how early Confucianism reinterpreted sacrificial rites and reconstructed the relationship between humans and spirits through the lens of qing (情, sentiment). Traditional scholarship often views the Confucian reinterpretation of sacrifice as a shift from religious belief to a human-centered framework of rationality, morality, and humanism—emphasizing its role in moral education and social governance and thereby marginalizing or even denying the existence of guishen (鬼神, spirits and deities) and the transcendent realm they represent. Although some scholars have emphasized the religious dimensions of Confucianism, few have addressed how Confucians managed to affirm the existence of spirits while simultaneously endowing sacrificial rites with moral and humanistic meaning—that is, how they navigated the inherent tension between the human and the divine realms. Against this background, this study argues that early Confucians neither denied the existence of spirits nor reduced sacrifice to a purely ethical or political instrument. By contrast, they regarded human sentiment as the universal foundation of sacrificial practice and, through a profound and creative transformation, redirected the meaning of sacrifice toward the human world (rendao 人道), thereby establishing a new model of human–divine relations—one that affirms human agency and dignity while preserving the sanctity of the spiritual. Drawing on close readings of classical Confucian texts such as The Analects, The Book of Rites, and Xunzi, this paper identifies three core dimensions of sacrificial sentiment: remembrance, gratitude, and reverence and awe. Together, these sentiments form a relational structure between humans and guishen that enables communication and interaction while maintaining clear boundaries. In this way, Confucian sacrificial rites become a space for emotional expression without degenerating into a “carnival of emotions” or transgressing the proper separation between the human and the divine. Confucian sacrificial thought thus affirms human dignity and moral agency while upholding the transcendence of the sacred. Full article

This article examines the concept of ming 命 (mandate/command or fate/destiny) in the Analects, Mencius, and Zhuangzi, exploring its relationship to tian 天 (Heaven). Across these works, ming retains an intrinsic connection to tian—an inviolable cosmic force beyond human control. All three texts exhibit profound reverence and submission to tian, acknowledging the boundary between human control and cosmic inevitability, yet, at the same time, advocating active alignment with tian’s ordained patterns. In the Analects, a central tension emerges between tian’s teleological purpose—centered on preserving human culture and ethical cultivation—and the seemingly arbitrary fluctuations of individual fate, particularly regarding lifespan and personal fulfillment. This tension persists in the Mencius, articulated as a conflict between the political disorder of Mencius’ contemporary era and tian’s normative moral order. The Zhuangzi, by contrast, resolves this tension through advocating for withdrawal from the political life, as well as a radical reinterpretation of tian. Stripping tian off the Confucian moral–cultural imperatives, the text deconstructs dichotomies like life and death, championing inner equanimity via flowing with the cosmic transformation. Full article

This study investigates the roles of wang (忘, forgetting) and buwang (不忘, non-forgetting) in early Confucian texts, emphasizing their interdependence within a yin–yang framework. Rather than signifying total erasure, for the purposes of the mnemic process, wang functions as a selective and creative mode, aiding cognitive refinement by withdrawing content considered secondary or extraneous. Primarily through close textual analysis of the Analects (Lunyu 論語), Mengzi (孟子), and Xunzi (荀子), this study shows how wang and buwang operate relationally, avoiding polar extremes in favor of a dynamic equilibrium. Conceptually, I argue that these terms are more accurately aligned with suspended and attentive modes of awareness, respectively. Tracing their pattern across these sources reveals the affirmative role of wang in optimizing memory, distancing the Confucian tradition from the notion of oblivion and offering a foundational perspective for future explorations of early Chinese memory-related discussions. Full article

This paper presents a comprehensive synchronic and diachronic analysis of the Sino-Vietnamese negative prefixes bất (Chinese 不 bù), vô (無 wú), and phi (非 fēi), examining their historical development and modern usage in Vietnamese, with a comparative perspective on their Chinese equivalents. By investigating the interaction between these prefixes and Vietnamese sentential negators—such as the native chẳng and the Chinese-derived không—the study explores the evolution of negation in Vietnamese over several centuries. The research draws on a corpus of three bilingual Classical Chinese–Vietnamese translations of Confucius’s Analects from the 17th, 19th, and 21st centuries, two written in traditional Nôm script and one in the modern Quốc ngữ alphabet. This corpus provides valuable insights into linguistic shifts driven by language contact in Vietnam. The findings reveal that in the 17th century, the Sino-Vietnamese prefixes bất, vô, and phi were largely absent, with native chẳng dominating. By the 19th century, chẳng persisted, but không emerged as a sentential negator, and bất appeared, both reflecting Chinese forms and demonstrating innovative uses. In the 21st century, không became the dominant negator, with bất and vô seeing increased usage, reflecting broader trends of linguistic modernization. This study situates these changes within the broader context of 20th-century East Asian literacy expansion, where Japan played a pivotal role in disseminating modernized Chinese-based vocabulary. By examining the selective adaptation and integration of Sino-Vietnamese elements, this paper contributes to a deeper understanding of language contact, syntactic influence, and lexical innovation in the evolving Vietnamese lexicon. Full article

Flexibility, or acting in line with the needs of the situation rather than strictly adhering to prefigured rules and principles, has long been seen as a primary feature of early Confucian ethics as articulated in the Analects of Confucius. This paper develops an understanding of flexibility in the Analects through a close reading of two passages, 18.8 and 17.4. The goal is to both add nuance to standard readings of flexibility in the text and contribute to contemporary discourse, where consideration of moral flexibility is lacking. I show that while flexibility in the Analects is presented as an exemplary ethical approach, it requires a high level of moral cultivation, making it inaccessible to many. For those incapable of a flexible approach, a rigid approach that strictly adheres to rules and principles provides a means of both proper conduct and further ethical development. The Analects thus offers a fairly nuanced consideration of the notion of flexibility and the role of moral cultivation that can enliven contemporary ethical discourse. Full article

This article explores the specific role of courage in the context of the Anthropocene’s moment; it first examines Aristotle’s conception of virtues, focusing on courage, before comparing it to Confucian thought and analyzing the historical dialogue between Western and Chinese traditions on ethics through the works of François Noël (1651–1729). Aristotle views moral cultivation as a social process wherein habits shape inner dispositions; in his view, courage is linked to other virtues, such as temperance and justice. For Aristotle, courage implies the appropriate balance between extremes and must be directed toward a worthy end, such as promoting positive change within a community. This Aristotelian perspective was later incorporated into a biblical framework by Aquinas and Suarez, emphasizing dichotomies between body and soul, as well as between humans and other living beings. These dichotomies must be challenged in the face of the Anthropocene’s emergencies. The second part of this contribution proceeds to a detour examining Confucian ethics, which rests on a different anthropology, emphasizing continuities rather than discontinuities. Like Aristotelian thought, Confucian thought also underscores moral education within a community; it prioritizes humanity, embodied through empathy and loyalty. In the Analects, courage is balanced by a sense of rituals and righteousness. Mencius further distinguishes several types of courage, stressing self-cultivation and the ruler’s responsibility to make empathetic, appropriate decisions for the community’s sake. From this perspective, courage is understood as the continuous perseverance in self-cultivation, coupled with a firm intention oriented toward the good of the community. Zhu Xi’s comments on Zilu’s courage in the Analects extend this Confucian tradition. Finally, this article highlights how a dialogue between Aristotelian and Confucian ethics began four centuries ago, particularly through Noël’s Philosophia Sinica, which combined these traditions. This inter-religious approach to ethics, enriched by figures such as Aquinas, Suarez, Zhu Xi, and neo-Confucian thinkers, requires re-evaluation because the understanding of personal ethics and nature has evolved. The modern naturalistic approach, with its emphasis on dichotomies, has contributed to a mechanistic view of nature, fostering its exploitation, and a devaluation of the body. This contrast highlights the urgent need for renewed dialogue between Western and Chinese ethical traditions to address contemporary challenges, with François Noël serving as a historical witness of these exchanges. Full article

Western thinkers have often seen Confucianism as unique in that it does not fit well into standard categories of either religion or philosophy. In terms of how this difficulty is reflected in academia, it seems that Confucianism is simultaneously both a religion and a philosophy, and neither. This paper attempts to begin a discussion of a related issue, which has been relatively underappreciated; namely, how does Confucianism attempt to convince people to be Confucian? Restricting our discussion to the Analects, we can find appeals to a belief which seem almost religious, rational arguments which seem philosophical, and a host of other methodologies that may help to convince readers to follow the Confucian way. The discussion of the Analects is cursory here, and only a few passages will be discussed in a general manner. We will contrast this with a general outline of approaches to convincing people found in two-world theories, which can help to illuminate the uniqueness of the Analects, especially when it is read as a one-world perspective. Full article

From a semantic viewpoint, “Jing 敬” emphasizes an attitude of external respect and adherence to ritual propriety, whereas “Cheng 诚” signifies the true alignment between one’s internal attitudes and external actions. An exploration of “Jing” and “Cheng” in The Analects, The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and The Works of Mencius from a linguistic perspective reveals the following: In the ethical system of The Analects, “Jing” represents an attitude towards others, and “Cheng” is rarely mentioned, with personal morality anchored in the social order; in The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean, “Jing” is seldom discussed, while “Cheng” is emphasized as a requirement for individuals, highlighting the intrinsic nature and spontaneity of personal morality; The Works of Mencius, while inheriting Confucius’s concepts, also adopts the ideas from The Great Learning and The Doctrine of the Mean and reinterprets “Jing” internally, achieving a unity between personal morality and social ethics. The shift from “Jing” to “Cheng” and the reinterpretation of “Jing” reflect the concentrated embodiment of the internal reconstruction of the Pre-Qin Confucian ethical system. Full article

This essay examines whether Confucius aligns more with humanism or religious thought, asserting that his philosophy defies simple classification. It highlights his use of religious motifs, especially the concept of li 禮, which he broadened beyond mere rituals to include societal behaviors, infusing them with a sacred essence. Additionally, this essay delves into Confucius’s notion of de 德, perceived as having an almost magical influence without coercion, closely tied to his ideas on li and governance. This reflects a belief in a universal moral order, challenging the view of Confucius as purely a humanist. The text also explores his nuanced understanding of tian 天, a central yet complex aspect of his philosophy, suggesting a spiritual dimension. Ultimately, this essay advocates for recognizing Confucius not only as a moral guide but as a thinker embodying significant religious or spiritual insights. Full article

This article centers around the early translation of the term Li 礼 in the Analects of Confucius (论语). This Latin translation shows that the interpretation of the Confucian term Li 礼 mostly did not include any religious meaning. This article also centers on the personal formation of the Jesuits of that time. Taking Michele Ruggieri as reference, this article details how studies based on the Latin Classics (especially Cicero) provided them with a reference to interpret this term as unrelated to religious worship. When the Jesuits arrived in China, at the end of the Ming dynasty, strong emphasis was given to the proper etiquette towards state officials. This in turn derived from the situation in the imperial court. In this historical environment, the Confucian rites (Li 礼) were interpreted as “good manners”. This article also presents briefly the question of whether for Christians, Li 礼 as a proper social behavior inspired by a particular cultural tradition has any connection with or can be a problem for the rituals of the Christian tradition instituted by Jesus as vehicles of divine grace. Full article

Commentarial literature constitutes a cornerstone in the edifice of Chinese Buddhism, providing critical exegesis of Indian Buddhist texts. This paper examines the pivotal role of Chengguan (738–839), the fourth patriarch of the Huayan school, revered for his extensive commentarial work on the Chinese translations of the Buddhāvataṃsaka-sūtra. Chengguan not only composed a written commentary but also engaged in discourses with the monastic and lay communities at Wutaishan, prompting the creation of a sub-commentary derived from these oral elucidations. The study posits that the composition of Chengguan’s audiences, comprising Confucian-educated scholars and Buddhist monks, necessitated a pedagogical strategy that integrated Chinese intellectual traditions into the Buddhist narrative to enhance comprehension. This analysis focuses on Chengguan’s citations of the Analects, showcasing how he interweaves Confucian maxims into the fabric of his commentary to illuminate Buddhist doctrines. The research articulates the method he employed to make the Buddhist texts resonate with a Chinese audience. Full article

The Confucius Sinarum Philosophus (1687) resulted from Jesuit research into Chinese classical texts. Upon its publication, the work conformed to the Jesuits’ accommodationist policy, facing challenges over its orthodoxy from both China and the West. The Latin translation and commentary on Analects 2.16 mirror these challenges and the Jesuit rebuttal. Compared to earlier translations, this version adheres more closely to traditional Chinese exegesis and participates actively in historical debates over orthodoxy. The annotations also delineate the heterodox teachings of the Yang (楊), Mo (墨), Daoist, and Buddhist schools, juxtaposing them with Confucianism, which they portray as a natural law to be perfected. The inclusion of these four heterodoxies introduces a novel aspect to Christian heresiology, while the portrayal of Confucianism assimilates it into the Christian orthodox framework. This article contends that the translation and commentary exemplify the Jesuits’ efforts to establish orthodoxy within both Chinese and Western contexts. Full article

The concept of wen 文 has multiple meanings, but it plays an exceptionally important role in the development of Confucianism and Chinese philosophical terms. Pre-Qin Confucianism 先秦儒学 and Song Confucianism (Song dynasty Neo-Confucians 宋代儒学/宋代新儒家) are two important representatives in the history of Confucianism. Confucius has insisted that although the heaven is not going to destroy wen, wen must exist in everyone’s xing 性, and only when placed within a community can it develop. In Pre-Qin Confucianism, wen completed the transformation from the long established social political structure of the Zhou dynasty and its corresponding moral principles to the consciousness of consummate conduct and ritual propriety based on human instinct and humanistic rationality. Song dynasty Neo-Confucians inherited this Confucian mission and developed the spirit of wen in their period. They emphasized the necessity of learning classics and then writing articles to get closer to the heart-mind of sages and then to build a cultural community together. Both Pre-Qin Confucianism and Song Confucianism have been applying their viewpoints to achieve a community, which is “this culture of ours” 斯文. Full article

An appreciation of the emphasis on flexibility in the Analects is one of the most consistent motifs in the various interpretations of this text. When applied specifically to normative readings, embracing adaptability, having malleable standards, and taking particulars into account are both promising and challenging ways to think about whether something might be moral or ethical. This paper attempts to deconstruct this familiar discussion along novel lines that can reveal new ways to reflect on the importance of flexibility in the Analects, while, at the same time, it reconstrues ways in which comparative projects might be oriented. The main argument is this: the Analects does not recognize a categorical distinction between a moral and non-moral realm. Whereas, in much modern academic thought, there is a distinction between what counts as contingencies and what is up to the individual, which, in turn, loosely corresponds to the non-moral and moral realms, the Analects does not make such clear distinctions. Everything, including core moral issues such as the individual’s own choice, moral guidelines, and the contextualization of (moral) models, is all ultimately grounded in contingencies. Nevertheless, the Analects provides ways of reflecting on choices and actions that aim to steer people in specific directions. We may understand this as a type of morality, but one that is significantly distinct from those wherein the difference between the moral (non-contingent) and non-moral (contingent) is foundational. Full article