Search Results (552)

Background: Postpartum hypogalactia is a prevalent obstetric complication worldwide, closely associated with excessive oxidative stress and impaired antioxidant defense in mammary tissue. Current hormone-based therapies carry endocrine disruption risks, while natural antioxidant bioactive agents such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) are largely limited by rapid in vivo clearance and poor tissue retention. Methods: We constructed an injectable gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel system to encapsulate chemically induced mammary epithelial cell-derived EVs (CiMECs-EVs) and systematically evaluated their antioxidant and lactogenic activities via multi-omics analysis, cellular functional assays and a bromocriptine-induced murine hypogalactia model. Results: CiMECs-EVs induced a functional mammary epithelial-like phenotype in fibroblasts in a dose-dependent manner with functional cargo enriched in glutathione metabolism and redox-regulatory miRNAs. The GelMA matrix protected EV integrity and enabled sustained release, and the composite system significantly ameliorated mammary duct structure and lactation function in vivo with specific mammary tropism and no systemic toxicity, outperforming free EV treatment. Conclusions: This study presents a safe protein biomacromolecule-based antioxidant delivery platform that effectively restores mammary redox balance and antioxidant defenses, providing a promising non-hormonal therapeutic strategy for postpartum hypogalactia. Full article

Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine) is a regulatory molecule with potential to increase plant tolerance to water stress by modulating stomatal function, redox balance, and photosynthetic efficiency. However, its physiological effects depend on dose, species, and stress intensity, and studies on Coffea canephora under recurrent drought are scarce. This study evaluated the effects of exogenous melatonin (0, 100, 200, 300, and 400 µM) on young plants of conilon coffee genotype 02 (Clone V12) subjected to three consecutive cycles of water deficit and rehydration. The experiment was conducted in a greenhouse using a randomized block design, with evaluations of gas exchange, water potential, and biomass allocation. Melatonin improved physiological recovery after rehydration, particularly at 100 and 300 µM during the second stress cycle, when photosynthesis reached values similar to the irrigated control. The 400 µM treatment maintained root dry mass close to the control under prolonged deficit, suggesting preferential biomass allocation to the root system. Overall, melatonin effects were more pronounced during recovery than stress, indicating a possible priming action. These results highlight the potential of melatonin as a phytoprotective agent in C. canephora, although responses depend on dose and stress cycle. Full article

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) promotes progressive renal dysfunction through a complex interplay of oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, apoptosis, and metabolic disturbances. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the effects of exercise training on systemic adaptations as well as tissue-specific renal and muscular mechanisms in CKD rat models. In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines, PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched from 2000 to 2026. Of 1287 records, 11 studies were included in the systematic review, of which 8 studies were evaluated in the meta-analysis. Methodological quality was assessed using the Collaborative Approach to Meta-Analysis and Review of Animal Data from Experimental Studies (CAMARADES) checklist, with scores ranging from 5 to 7 out of 10. Exercise interventions included resistance training, treadmill running, aerobic exercise, and wheel climbing. Exercise training enhanced endothelial function and improved metabolic homeostasis while attenuating reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and lipid peroxidation through augmentation of endogenous antioxidant defenses. Restoration of redox balance suppressed nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and NOD-, LRR-, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome signaling pathways, resulting in reductions in pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). These effects subsequently mitigated mitochondrial dysfunction, caspase activation, and apoptosis-related signaling, thereby preserving renal cellular viability. These adaptations translated into substantial histopathological protection, characterized by reduced inflammatory cell infiltration, glomerular sclerosis, tubular degeneration, and extracellular matrix deposition. Preservation of renal microarchitecture contributed to improved filtration capacity and overall renal function. Furthermore, exercise promoted mitochondrial biogenesis and anabolic signaling in skeletal muscle via activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1α)/transcription factor A, mitochondrial (TFAM) pathways, enhancing protein synthesis and attenuating CKD-associated muscle wasting, thereby contributing to tissue-level protection and systemic physiological improvement. Full article

Background/Objectives: Age-related increases in oxidative stress and chronic low-grade inflammation contribute to skeletal muscle deterioration, impaired physical performance, and loss of functional independence in older adults. Regular exercise may counteract these processes by improving both musculoskeletal function and systemic redox homeostasis; however, the effects of multimodal functional exercise on antioxidant defence mechanisms and innate immune redox regulation remain incompletely understood. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate changes associated with a six-week multimodal functional exercise program in body composition, muscle strength, physical performance, antioxidant defence and phagocyte oxidative burst activity in older women. Methods: Seventeen physically inactive women aged over 65 years participated in a six-week functional training program consisting of aerobic, resistance, balance, coordination, and proprioceptive exercises performed twice weekly. Body composition, handgrip strength, and Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB) scores were assessed before and after the intervention. In addition, serum antioxidant enzyme activities, total antioxidant capacity, lipid peroxidation markers, nitrite/nitrate concentrations, and phagocyte oxidative burst activity were determined. Results: Following the intervention, improvements were observed in skeletal muscle mass, muscle percentage, handgrip strength, and SPPB scores, while body fat mass and body fat percentage decreased. Catalase activity increased, whereas superoxide dismutase activity, glutathione peroxidase activity, and lipid peroxidation markers remained unchanged. Serum nitrite/nitrate concentrations increased following the intervention. Although neutrophil counts did not change, phagocyte oxidative burst activity decreased significantly. Conclusions: These findings indicate that a six-week multimodal functional exercise program was associated with favourable changes in body composition, enhanced muscle strength, and improved functional performance in previously inactive older women. In parallel, favourable changes in antioxidant defence, nitric oxide metabolism, and immune-related redox regulation were also observed following the intervention, supporting the potential role of multimodal functional training as an effective non-pharmacological strategy for promoting healthy ageing. Full article

Essential oils from rosemary, cinnamon, and clove have attracted interest as alternatives to routine antibiotic use in poultry production. Their potential effects include improving gut health, microbial control, oxidative balance, growth performance, carcass traits, and meat preservation. However, comparing the literature is difficult because terms like “rosemary oil,” “cinnamon oil,” and “clove oil” often refer to preparations that are not chemically or functionally equivalent. These preparations vary by botanical source, chemotype, extraction method, storage, formulation, concentration, and route of exposure. This review argues that poultry outcomes should be interpreted through a chemistry- and route-based framework. Rosemary essential oil is typically rich in monoterpenes. Cinnamon oils may be cinnamaldehyde- or eugenol-dominant, depending on the species and plant organ. Clove oil is generally rich in eugenol but remains compositionally variable. These differences influence antimicrobial potency, anti-virulence activity, redox behavior, sensory impact, and stability. The review further distinguishes between direct antimicrobial injury and growth-independent virulence attenuation. It also separates dietary effects in live birds from postharvest effects on meat. Evidence suggests that dietary supplementation can influence intestinal morphology, inflammatory status, nutrient utilization, and carcass composition. These effects are especially notable when formulations are protected or encapsulated. This review aims to critically evaluate rosemary, cinnamon, and clove essential oils as non-interchangeable interventions in poultry systems. It relates their chemical identity, formulation, and route of exposure to outcomes such as gut health, microbial modulation, performance, and carcass traits. Full article

The withdrawal of antibiotic growth promoters has fundamentally changed the priorities of poultry nutrition, shifting attention from growth promotion towards maintenance of intestinal homeostasis and physiological resilience, defined here as the capacity of the organism to maintain or restore functional homeostasis when exposed to biological, nutritional, or environmental challenges. Although plant-derived feed additives have attracted considerable interest as natural alternatives, their biological activity is still commonly interpreted as a collection of independent antimicrobial, antioxidant, or immunomodulatory effects. This fragmented perspective may not fully capture the interconnected and context-dependent nature of their effects across experimental models. This review develops an integrated conceptual framework in which phytogenic feed additives are considered as potential systems-level modulators of the microbiota–gut–immune axis rather than as isolated sources of bioactive compounds. We synthesise experimental evidence from 155 broiler chickens identified through searches of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar from database inception to June 2026, covering microbial ecology, intestinal morphology and barrier function, microbial metabolites, redox balance, inflammatory signalling, and innate and adaptive immunity across infectious, nutritional, and environmental challenge models. Particular attention is given to the different levels of evidence provided by culture-based and targeted analyses, microbiome profiling, integrated host–microbiome studies, and multi-omics approaches. The available evidence suggests that structurally diverse phytochemicals can influence overlapping regulatory networks linking microbial ecology, epithelial barrier integrity, redox balance, inflammatory signalling, and immune function. However, the magnitude and direction of these responses vary substantially according to botanical source, phytochemical composition, dose, formulation, duration of supplementation, animal genotype, basal diet, and experimental challenge. Collectively, the available evidence supports a paradigm shift from compound-centred interpretation towards network-based regulation of host homeostasis. Within this context, physiological resilience refers to the capacity to maintain or restore functional homeostasis in response to biological, nutritional, or environmental challenges. It may emerge from coordinated interactions among the intestinal microbiota, the epithelial barrier, and the immune system. Phytogenic supplementation may contribute to resilience by simultaneously modulating several components of this network, although causal relationships remain incompletely established for many proposed mechanisms. This systems-level perspective provides a framework for integrating heterogeneous evidence and for identifying priorities for future research, including dose–response relationships, phytochemical combinations, longitudinal multi-omics approaches, and validation under commercially relevant production conditions, with implications for precision poultry nutrition. Full article

Cyanobacteria are promising platforms for bioenergy, carbon sequestration, and bioproduct synthesis, but their photosynthetic efficiency is limited by suboptimal light utilization, electron transport constraints, and environmental stress. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (n-TiO₂) have emerged as powerful photocatalytic materials that can enhance light absorption, modulate electron transport, and influence the redox balance in biological systems. This review advances the concept of photocatalytic-biological coupling, in which n-TiO₂ functions as artificial light amplifiers that augment cyanobacterial photosynthesis. Current evidence on the physicochemical properties of n-TiO₂, their interactions with cyanobacterial cells, and their effects on photosystems, electron transport chains, and downstream metabolic processes is examined. Particular emphasis is placed on the integration of photophysical and biological mechanisms, including reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated signaling, proton motive force (PMF) enhancement, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis. Emerging approaches, including nano–bio interface engineering, environmental biotechnology applications, and artificial intelligence-guided optimization, are highlighted. By bridging photophysics, cellular bioenergetics, and computational design within a unified mechanistic framework, this review establishes the scientific foundation needed to translate photocatalytic–biological coupling into scalable and biotechnologically deployable nano-enabled photosynthetic systems. Full article

Landfill leachate circuits that operate without discharge, by recirculating aerated leachate onto the waste mass, are widespread in South-East Europe, yet their long-term behaviour is rarely documented with sample-level data. This study reports a six-year (2020–2025) seasonal monitoring campaign at a sanitary landfill in northern Serbia (alluvial aquifer of the Sava River, transboundary Danube basin) and re-examines it with a transparent multivariate protocol. Seventy-two leachate samples (collection well, aeration lagoon, sedimentation lagoon; n = 24 each, 30 parameters), 28 realised surface-water campaigns, and six years of groundwater summaries were evaluated by principal component analysis/factor analysis (PCA/FA, Varimax normalized), hierarchical cluster analysis, PERMANOVA, non-parametric paired tests and, for benchmarking, supervised machine learning. The pooled leachate model (n = 72; 21 variables; KMO = 0.700; Bartlett χ² = 956, p < 0.001) retained four factors by parallel analysis, explaining 61.6% of total variance; after rotation the factors accounted for 27.7%, 14.3%, 10.4%, and 9.3%. Factor 1 grouped organic load with particle-reactive metals (COD, BOD₅, Fe, Ni, Cr, As, Zn), Factor 2 a reduced sulfur–fluoride–BTEX signature, Factor 3 temperature-driven nitritation, and Factor 4 a nitrate–manganese redox contrast. Crucially, paired campaign-by-campaign comparison showed no removal of the dominant pollutants along the circuit. Median COD, BOD₅ and NH₄-N were not lower in the sedimentation lagoon than in the collection well, while pH rose from 8.08 to 8.75 (p < 0.001); only Cu, Pb, NO₃-N, and NO₂-N decreased significantly. The circuit therefore homogenises and concentrates dissolved load rather than removing it. Downstream surface water was significantly enriched in electrical conductivity (+110 µS/cm), total dissolved solids, NH₄-N, and NO₂-N relative to upstream (Wilcoxon, p < 0.05), and groundwater showed episodic conductivity up to 12,760 µS/cm and NH₄-N up to 102 mg/L. Cytotoxicity (MTT) confirmed biological relevance, with MRC-5 viability falling to 37% after 24 h exposure to 50 vol.% groundwater (Pw3) versus 60% in A549 cells. A random-forest classifier separated circuit units far better than PCA-based discrimination (76.4% versus 54.2% cross-validated accuracy) and distinguished the 2020–2021 pandemic period from 2022–2025 with 94.2% accuracy, a period effect also confirmed by PERMANOVA (R² = 7.2%, p < 0.001). The results indicate that closed-loop recirculation without an engineered discharge barrier transfers, rather than eliminates, contaminant load, and that after-care of such systems requires mass-balance monitoring and polishing treatment. Full article

Bone remodeling is a dynamic and tightly regulated process that maintains skeletal homeostasis through a balance between bone formation by osteoblasts and bone resorption by osteoclasts. Disruption of this balance contributes to the development of bone-related disorders, particularly osteopenia, osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta, which weaken, deform, or cause fractures. Increasing evidence indicates that oxidative stress and chronic inflammation impair osteoblast functions while promoting osteoclast differentiation and activity. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a stress-inducible enzyme with cytoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties. Besides its primary role in cellular defense against oxidative stress and inflammatory damage, HO-1 has been shown to be involved in both osteoblast differentiation and osteoclastogenesis. Through its interaction with key regulatory systems, including the receptor activator of nuclear factor κB (RANK)–receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL)–osteoprotegerin axis and redox-sensitive signaling pathways, HO-1 contributes to maintenance of optimal bone remodeling. The enzyme also plays a role in modulating metabolic processes in the bone. This review highlights the role of HO-1 in bone formation, bone resorption, and related pathophysiologic conditions. Furthermore, the therapeutic potential of HO-1 as a target for bone disorders is discussed. Full article

Krill oil (KO) is a marine-derived nutritional ingredient distinguished by its unique structural composition and increasing relevance in human nutrition, particularly in the context of healthy aging and preservation of intrinsic capacity. Approximately 30–65% of its fatty acids are esterified to phospholipids, a molecular configuration associated with enhanced bioavailability and efficient tissue incorporation of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, even at relatively low doses. Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) originates from minimally impacted marine ecosystems, contributing to a favorable safety profile characterized by inherently low levels of environmental contaminants, including heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants. Beyond its structural and safety attributes, KO provides a complex nutrient matrix comprising approximately 25% total n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), including ~14% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and ~6.5% docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), together with choline and astaxanthin. This compositional synergy may modulate inflammatory pathways, redox balance, membrane dynamics, and cellular signaling, thereby influencing physiological systems implicated in aging biology. This narrative review critically examines how these distinctive characteristics translate into clinically relevant outcomes supporting the multifunctional applications of KO in human nutrition. The analysis is structured within the framework of intrinsic capacity, encompassing locomotion, vitality, sensory, cognition and psychological dimensions, as a conceptual model for healthy aging. Considerations on bioavailability, tolerability, and sustainability are also discussed in the context of nutritional strategies promoting healthy longevity. Full article

Extremophilic prokaryotes survive salt, temperature, and pH extremes by coordinating stress-induced protein networks that preserve macromolecules, sustain energetics, and repair damage. This review integrates recent proteomics with functional genomics to resolve both network state and causality across halophiles, thermophiles, acidophiles, alkaliphiles, psychrophiles, and radiation-resistant prokaryotes. Quantitative proteomics maps condition-specific induction of chaperones, proteases, ion transporters, osmolyte pathways, DNA repair proteins, antioxidants, and envelope remodeling enzymes. Complementary perturbation genetics, functional genomics, and transcriptomics help to identify essential nodes and regulatory circuits underlying stress tolerance. In halophiles, compatible solute synthesis and Na⁺/H⁺ exchange couple to protein quality control and central metabolism, whereas many archaeal halophiles additionally rely on high intracellular salt and distinctive membrane chemistry. Thermophiles rely on heat-shock systems, ATP-dependent proteolysis, membrane adjustments, and redox balancing. Acidophiles maintain near-neutral cytosol via proton export and low-permeability membranes while linking iron handling to oxidative defense. Alkaliphiles use Na⁺-based bioenergetics, multi-subunit antiporters, and cell-wall modifications to retain protons. Psychrophiles emphasize cold-shock RNA chaperones, flexible enzymes, and cryoprotectants, whereas radiophiles combine exceptional DNA repair with strong antioxidant capacity. Across taxa, oxidative stress forms a cross-cutting axis that explains extensive regulon overlap and cross-protection. We synthesize network architecture, highlight conserved modules and lineage-specific solutions, and outline open questions in stress sensing, multi-stress integration, and the functions of uncharacterized proteins. These insights provide a framework for engineering robust biocatalysts and organisms for biotechnology and environmental applications. Full article

Rice is a globally important staple crop and a major dietary source of inorganic arsenic (As). Compared with upland crops, flooded rice cultivation profoundly alters soil redox conditions, making paddy soils one of the most active agricultural interfaces for As mobilization, transformation, and food-chain transfer. While previous research has primarily focused on total As and inorganic As [As(III)/As(V)], methylated and thiolated As species also carry critical agronomic and health implications. Dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) can accumulate in grain and induce straighthead disease, whereas dimethylmonothioarsenate (DMMTA) shows substantially higher toxicity and uptake potential; DMMTA root uptake can be approximately 10 times higher than DMA, and its straighthead-inducing potency can exceed DMA by more than fivefold. This review synthesizes the sources, biogeochemical transformations, plant uptake, grain accumulation, safety assessment, and management implications of As along the paddy soil–rice–grain continuum. Particular emphasis is placed on how water regimes, redox potential, Fe/Mn/Al oxides, sulfur cycling, dissolved organic matter (DOM), microbial functional genes, and crop genotypes regulate diverse As species. Quantitative evidence indicates that alternate wetting and drying (AWD) can reduce grain total As and inorganic As by medians of 32% and 22%, respectively, but may increase grain cadmium (Cd) by a median of 58%; meanwhile, DMA and DMMTA can account for approximately 10–90% and 1–21% of total grain As, respectively, emphasizing that grain-As risk cannot be evaluated using inorganic As alone. Future research should establish speciation-based monitoring systems for inorganic, methylated, and thiolated As; develop process models linking water regime, Fe/S cycling, microbial transformations, and plant transport; and translate these mechanisms into field decision tools that balance As–Cd risk reduction, crop yield, and rice safety under changing environmental conditions. Full article

Sanghuangporus baumii, a medicinal macrofungus, remains unexplored in its response to aluminum stress, despite the widespread environmental relevance of this metal. This study investigated the dose-dependent effects of Al³⁺ on mycelial growth and metabolic regulation. Exposure to 1 mM Al³⁺ moderately stimulated growth (1.11-fold of control) and induced mild oxidative stress, which activated an effective antioxidant response—including increased SOD, CAT, and POD activities and elevated reduced glutathione content—thereby maintaining redox balance and increasing soluble sugar content. In contrast, 10 mM Al³⁺ led to pronounced intracellular Al³⁺ accumulation, severe growth inhibition, and marked oxidative damage, accompanied by impairment of the antioxidant system, yet a marked increase in total triterpenoid content (1.72-fold). Transcriptomic analysis identified 642 and 3019 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the 1 and 10 mM Al³⁺ treatments, respectively. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed concentration-dependent alterations in pathways related to peroxisome function, glutathione metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, and terpenoid backbone biosynthesis. Collectively, these findings suggest that Al³⁺ modulates S. baumii growth and metabolism in a dose-dependent manner, with redox remodeling as a potential mechanism, offering novel insights into fungal metal adaptation and the targeted modulation of medicinal metabolite production. Full article

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) exert dual biological functions in plants. Though they form toxic byproducts of aerobic metabolism, ROS also serve as indispensable secondary messengers that orchestrate stress acclimation programs. For decades, plant physiologists operated under a pervasive assumption that constitutive and non-compartmentalized upregulation of antioxidant capacity would universally enhance abiotic stress tolerance. This long-standing dogma has now been thoroughly overturned. A growing body of evidence shows that sustained, global high antioxidant activity often impairs adaptation rather than helping it. In this review, we replace the simplistic “more antioxidants equal better tolerance” framework with a dynamic model of cellular redox homeostasis. We dissect three interconnected mechanisms though which unrestrained ROS scavenging generates deleterious phenotypic outcomes. First, indiscriminate clearance blunts transient ROS pulses and propagating ROS waves, the core signaling events acquired to trigger systemic acquired acclimation (SAA). Second, continuous antioxidant biosynthesis drains finite carbon skeletons, NADPH, and ATP pools, exacerbating evolutionary growth-defense resource trade-offs. Third, non-specific bulk ROS scavenging erases compartment-specific organellar retrograde signals, which rely on tightly controlled spatial and temporal ROS fluctuations. We concurrently define physiological boundary conditions where robust antioxidant activity remains vital for plant survival under extreme stress. Rather than advocating for the complete suppression of ROS detoxification, our analysis advocates context-dependent fine-tuning of redox signaling networks. We also summarize emerging precision redox monitoring and genetic engineering tools, and outline translational breeding pipelines to develop climate-resilient crops that balance stress survival and yield stability. This work delivers novel conceptual perspectives to advance fundamental plant redox biology. Full article

Iron (Fe) is an essential micronutrient for plant growth, serving as a cofactor in chlorophyll synthesis, photosynthetic electron transport, and redox reactions. Both Fe deficiency and excess disrupt mineral nutrient homeostasis, but the ionomic and transcriptomic mechanisms underlying genotype-specific responses in potato remain elusive. We profiled the ionome and transcriptome of two potato genotypes, 05P and CI5, grown under Fe-deficient, Fe-sufficient and Fe-excess conditions represented by 1, 40.4 and 120 mg L⁻¹ FeNaEDTA, respectively. Ionomic analysis detected significant alterations in Fe, Mn, Zn, Ca, Mg, and Cu concentrations across roots, stems, and leaves, with the direction and magnitude of change varying by organ and genotype. Under Fe deficiency, CI5 showed steeper declines in root and stem Fe than 05P, while 05P retained higher leaf Fe, reflecting genotype-dependent patterns of shoot Fe distribution. Fe excess caused Fe accumulation in both genotypes, but coincided with Mn depletion in shoots, raising Fe/Mn ratios, consistent with potential antagonistic Fe–Mn interactions at the transport level. This pattern is consistent with potential antagonistic Fe–Mn interactions, although alternative mechanisms such as Mn uptake inhibition or dilution effects cannot be ruled out without direct experimental evidence. Transcriptome analysis showed organ-biased responses: Fe deficiency upregulated more genes in stems, whereas Fe excess triggered stronger transcriptional shifts in roots. No KEGG pathways remained significant after false discovery rate (FDR) correction, suggesting that genotype-dependent Fe-responsive divergence was not concentrated in a limited number of canonical KEGG pathways under the present analytical framework. Joint analysis of ionomic and transcriptomic data highlighted ferric-chelate reductase oxidase (FRO) and zinc-regulated transporter/iron-regulated transporter-like protein (IRT/ZIP) family members as genes associated with Fe reduction, divalent metal uptake, and Fe–Mn balance based on differential expression and orthology with functionally characterized Arabidopsis homologs. Comparative genomics showed that FRO and ZIP families have expanded in potato, with conserved domain architectures but divergent gene structures and promoter architectures, consistent with potential functional diversification related to metal transport. In conclusion, under Fe deficiency, genotype-dependent transcriptional divergence was most pronounced in stems, whereas under Fe excess it was more evident in roots, jointly maintaining systemic Fe–Mn homeostasis in potato. Full article