Search Results (526)

Resveratrol (RES), a naturally occurring polyphenolic compound with well-documented anticancer potential, is limited in clinical application due to its poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability. This study aimed to develop RES-loaded liposomes coated sequentially with chitosan (CS) and hyaluronic acid-chitosan (HA) (RES-HA-CS-Lip) to enhance RES stability, delivery, and anticancer efficacy in breast cancer cells. HA-CS-coated liposomes were prepared using a thin-film hydration technique. Their physicochemical characteristics were thoroughly investigated through dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and differential scanning calorimetry. The optimized RES-HA-CS-Lip exhibited spherical morphology with an average particle size of 212 nm, a narrow polydispersity index (<0.4), a zeta potential of +9.04 ± 1.0 mV, and high entrapment efficiency of 82.16%. Stability studies demonstrated superior retention of size, surface charge, and encapsulation efficiency over 28 days at both 4 °C and 25 °C. In vitro release profiles at physiological and acidic pH revealed sustained drug release, with enhanced release under acidic conditions mimicking the tumor microenvironment. Antioxidant activity, assessed via DPPH and ABTS radical-scavenging assays, indicated that RES retained its radical-scavenging potential upon encapsulation. Cytotoxicity assays demonstrated markedly improved anticancer activity against MCF-7 breast cancer cells, with an IC₅₀ of 13.08 μg/mL at 48 h, while maintaining high biocompatibility toward normal HaCaT keratinocytes. RES-HA-CS-Lip demonstrated excellent stability against degradation and aggregation. Overall, these findings highlight HA-CS-coated liposomes as a promising polysaccharide-based nanocarrier that enhances stability, bioactivity, and therapeutic efficacy of RES, representing a potential strategy for targeted breast cancer therapy. Full article

Background: Amlodipine besylate (AML) is recognized as a calcium channel blocker curative for hypertension. However, the drug emerged recently as an antibacterial cure that competently prevails over resistant strains. Methods: Incorporating amlodipine into zein nanoparticles was employed to innovate a suitable carrier for loading and targeting deep corneal infection. The Box–Behnken design was adopted to produce various formulations of amlodipine-loaded zein nanoparticles (AML-ZNs) with diversity in composition concentration (% w/v), comprising zein, Labrafac, and poloxamer 407. Results: Relying on the optimization criterion, the chosen preference formulation concentration (% w/v) consists of 2.068 for zein, 0.75 for Labrafac, and 1.0 for Poloxamer. Morphological micrography of AML-ZNs showed regular spherical particles in the nanometric scale, and physicochemical characterization procedures confirmed system suitability. While tracking eyedrop optimum features, sodium alginate was selected for coating nanoparticles to improve stability and system viscosity. Both pH and sterility were also considered and maintained. Comparative studies were conducted pre- and post-coating, and the assessed features for the final selected formulation were 349.9 ± 5.8 nm, 0.2186 ± 0.0271, −55.45 ± 1.84 mV, 81.293 ± 0.9%, and 19.3 ± 0.19 cp for size, PDI, surface charge, entrapment, and viscosity, respectively. The AML-ZNs-Alg formulation demonstrates a more controlled pattern of release of roughly 40% of the drug released after 48 h, while the permeation profile shows 37 ± 3.52% permeated after 24 h, confirmed visually. In vitro microbial assay alongside the corneal in vivo microbial and histological pathology evaluation proved the efficacy of amlodipine as an antibacterial agent. Conclusions: These findings highlighted that the prepared AML-ZNs-Alg eyedrop can be a promising system as an antibacterial therapy. Full article

Currently, there is a growing interest in biomedical research in the use of inorganic nanoparticles for targeted drug delivery, as biosensors, and in theranostic applications. This review examines the interaction of inorganic nanoparticles with protein molecules depending on the chemical nature, size, and surface charge of the nanoparticles. The effect of protein and nanoparticle concentration, as well as their incubation time, is analyzed. The work focuses on the influence of parameters such as pH, ionic strength, and temperature on the interaction of nanoparticles with protein molecules. The following dependencies were studied in detail: the thickness of the protein corona as a function of nanoparticle size; the size of nanoparticles after interaction with protein as a function of protein and nanoparticle concentration; the distribution of zeta potentials in colloids of nanoparticles, proteins, and their mixtures. It has been shown that proteins and nanoparticles can influence each other’s physicochemical properties. This can lead to the emergence of new biological properties in the system. Therefore, the adsorption of proteins onto nanoparticle surfaces can induce conformational changes. The probability of changing the protein structure increases when a covalent bond is formed between the nanoparticle and the protein molecule. Studies demonstrate that protein structure remains more stable with spherical nanoparticles than with rod-shaped or other high-curvature nanostructures. The results presented in the review demonstrate the possibility of adapting physiological responses to nanomaterials by changing the chemical composition of the surface of nanoparticles and their size and charge. Full article

Background/Objectives: Understanding the interactions between nanoparticles and mucosal tissues is crucial for the development of advanced drug delivery systems, as the diffusion behavior of nanoparticles through mucus is strongly influenced by their size and surface properties, and the viscoelastic nature of the hydrogel matrix. In this study, we investigated the impact of nanoparticle size, surface charge, and hydrogel crosslinking density on nanoparticle diffusion in a mucus model in vitro. Method: Citrate-stabilized and PEGylated 30 and 100 nm gold nanoparticles were used as a model of nanoparticle and their diffusion through mucus-mimicking mucin-based hydrogels of two different crosslinking densities was assessed. Results: Citrate-stabilized 30 nm nanoparticles demonstrated greater diffusion in hydrogels mimicking native mucus compared to more densely crosslinked ones, reaching approximately 50.3 ± 0.2% diffusion within the first 5 min of the assay. This size-dependent effect was not observed for the 100 nm citrate-stabilized nanoparticles, which showed limited diffusion in both hydrogel types. To confer different surface charge, gold nanoparticles were functionalized by the conjugation of poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) derivatives of identical molecular weight with different terminal moieties (neutral, and positively and negatively charged) to modulate the surface charge and assess their interaction with the negatively charged mucin matrix. PEGylated particles exhibited significantly greater mobility than their citrate-stabilized counterparts, regardless of size or hydrogel density owing to the muco-penetration effect of PEG. Among PEGylated particles, the neutral and negatively charged 30 nm variants demonstrated higher diffusion than the positively charged ones due to weaker interactions with the negatively charged mucin hydrogel. For the 100 nm particles, the neutral PEGylated nanoparticles exhibited greater diffusion than their positively charged counterparts. Conclusions: Overall findings could provide valuable insights into the more rational design of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems targeting mucosal tissues. Full article

The development of advanced photocatalysts that are efficient, recyclable and sustainable represents a significant challenge in the face of the growing presence of persistent organic contaminants in industrial wastewaters. This paper presents a novel approach based on the design of new heterostructures synthesized from BiOI and magnetic materials, using not only synthetic magnetite, but also magnetic compounds extracted from mine tailings, transforming environmental liabilities in active supporting materials through valorization strategies in line with the circular economy. Through precise control of composition, it was established that a proportion of 6% by mass of the magnetic phase allows the formation of a heterostructure that is highly photocatalytically efficient. These compounds were evaluated using caffeic acid, an organic contaminant of agroindustrial origin, as a target compound. Experiments were carried out under simulated solar radiation for 120 min. Among the materials synthesized, the BiOI/MMA heterostructure, derived from industrial tailing A, displayed an outstanding photodegradation efficiency of over 89.4 ± 0.25%, attributed to an effective separation of photoinduced charges, a broad active surface and a synergic interface interaction between its constituent phases. Furthermore, BiOI/MMA exhibited excellent structural stability and magnetic recovery capacity, which allowed for its reuse through two consecutive cycles without any significant losses to its photocatalytic performance. Thus, this study constitutes a significant contribution to the design of functional photocatalysts derived from industrial tailings, thus promoting clean, technological solutions for the treatment of wastewater and reinforcing the link between environmental remediation and circular economy. Full article

Bismuth vanadate (BiVO₄) has attracted significant attention as a photoanode material for photoelectrochemical (PEC) water splitting due to its suitable bandgap (~2.4 eV), strong visible light absorption, chemical stability, and cost-effectiveness. Despite these advantages, its practical application remains constrained by intrinsic limitations, including poor charge carrier mobility, short diffusion length, and sluggish oxygen evolution reaction (OER) kinetics. This review critically summarizes recent advancements aimed at enhancing BiVO₄ PEC performance, encompassing synthesis strategies, defect engineering, heterojunction formation, cocatalyst integration, light-harvesting optimization, and stability improvements. Key fabrication methods—such as solution-based, vapor-phase, and electrochemical approaches—along with targeted modifications, including metal/nonmetal doping, surface passivation, and incorporation of electron transport layers, are discussed. Emphasis is placed on strategies to improve light absorption, charge separation efficiency (η_sep), and charge transfer efficiency (η_trans) through bandgap engineering, optical structure design, and catalytic interface optimization. Approaches to enhance stability via protective overlayers and electrolyte tuning are also reviewed, alongside emerging applications of BiVO₄ in tandem PEC systems and selective solar-driven production of value-added chemicals, such as H₂O₂. Finally, critical challenges, including the scale-up of electrode fabrication and the elucidation of fundamental reaction mechanisms, are highlighted, providing perspectives for bridging the gap between laboratory performance and practical implementation. Full article

Background/Objectives: Covalent conjugation of an antibiotic vancomycin (VCM) moiety and a photosensitizing mesochlorin (mChl_Pd) unit into one molecular entity may present the potential to produce the combinatorial effect of both antibacterial photodynamic therapeutic (aPDT) and antibiotic activities. Our recent study indicated that a short linkage of <4 (C−C/or C−N) bond distances between these two moieties resulted in significant steric hindrance due to the bulky VCM, which greatly reduces the accessibility of the agent to the cell surface of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). The observed aPDT efficacy was found to be minimal. Here, we report that the revision of this linkage, via an EG₁₀ unit using identical synthetic procedures, was able to resolve the issue. Methods: Accordingly, the corresponding combinatorial aPDT−antibiotic compound, consisting of two covalently bonded quaternary ammonium pentacationic arms on the mesochlorin chromophore core, designated as VCMe-mChl_Pd-N₁₀⁺ (LC40e⁺), was prepared for applications in antibacterial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) activity. It was selected to investigate its enhanced binding and targeting ability to the surface of Gram-positive MRSA cells. Subsequent antibacterial photodynamic therapeutic (aPDT) activity to inactivate MRSA was investigated to substantiate the corresponding cell-surface binding effect on the efficacy of aPDT. Results: We found that the covalent combination of 10 positive charges and an MRSA-targeting vancomycin (VCM) moiety in a conjugated structure, functioning as an antibiotic–decacationic photosensitizing agent (Abx-dcPS), was capable of largely improving the MRSA cell-targeting efficiency. Importantly, variation in the chain length of the oligo(ethylene glycol) linker of VCMe-mChl_Pd-N₁₀⁺, which was sufficiently long enough to properly separate the photoactive mesochlorin ring moiety from the VCM moiety within the molecular structure, resulted in significantly enhanced aPDT activity. The new conjugate provided nearly complete eradication (>6.5-log₁₀ colony-forming units (CFU) reduction) of MRSA cells in vitro. The aPDT efficacy followed the order Abx-dcPS (combinatorial decacationic) > dcPS (decacationic) >> nPS (nonionic). This order was also verified by the relative physical binding trend of these PSs using either nPS-, dcPS-, or Abx-dcPS-pretreated and pre-fixed MRSA cells in investigations of fluorescent confocal microscopy, UV–vis fluorescence spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Conclusions: Furthermore, the molecular conjugate of Abx-dcPS may provide covalent co-delivery of two drug components concurrently, which might also serve as an effective antibiotic agent after aPDT and potentially prevent the reoccurrence of MRSA-induced infection. Full article

Prostate stem cell antigen (PSCA) is a Ly6/uPAR protein that targets neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). It exists in membrane-tethered and soluble forms, with the latter upregulated in Alzheimer’s disease. We hypothesize that PSCA may be linked to a wider spectrum of neurological diseases and could induce neuroinflammation. Indeed, PSCA expression is significantly upregulated in the brain of patients with multiple sclerosis, Huntington’s disease, Down syndrome, bipolar disorder, and HIV-associated dementia. To investigate PSCA’s structure, pharmacology, and inflammatory function, we produced a correctly folded water-soluble recombinant analog (ws-PSCA). In primary hippocampal neurons and astrocytes, ws-PSCA differently regulates secretion of inflammatory factors and adhesion molecules and induces pro-inflammatory responses by increasing TNFβ secretion. Heteronuclear NMR and ¹⁵N relaxation measurements reveal a classical β-structural three-finger fold with conformationally disordered loops II and III. Positive charge clustering on the molecular surface suggests the functional importance of ionic interactions by these loops. Electrophysiological studies in Xenopus oocytes point on ws-PSCA inhibition of α3β2-, high-, and low-sensitive variants of α4β2- (IC₅₀ ~50, 27, and 15 μM, respectively) but not α4β4-nAChRs, suggesting targeting of the β2 subunit. Ensemble docking and molecular dynamics simulations predict PSCA binding to high-sensitive α4β2-nAChR at α4/β2 and β2/β2 interfaces. Complexes are stabilized by ionic and hydrogen bonds between PSCA’s loops II and III and the primary and complementary receptor subunits, including glycosyl groups. This study gives new structural and functional insights into PSCA’s interaction with molecular targets and provides clues to understand its role in the brain function and mental disorders. Full article

Photodynamic inactivation and antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDI/APDT) based on the toxic properties of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are generated by a number of photoexcited dyes, are promising for preventing and treating infections, especially those associated with drug-resistant pathogens. The negatively charged bacterial cell surface attracts polycationic photosensitizers, which contribute to the vulnerability of the bacterial plasma membrane to ROS. The integrity of the plasma membrane is critical for the viability of the bacterial cell. Polycationic phthalocyanines are regarded as promising photosensitizers due to their high quantum yields of ROS generation (mainly singlet oxygen), high extinction coefficients in the far-red spectral range, and low dark toxicity. For application in PDI/APDT, the wide range of possibilities of modifying the chemical structure of phthalocyanines is particularly valuable, especially by introducing various peripheral and non-peripheral substituents into the benzene rings. Depending on the type and location of such substituents, it is possible to obtain photosensitizers with different photophysical properties, photochemical activity, solubility in an aqueous medium, biocompatibility, and tropism for certain structures of photoinactivation targets. In this study, we tested novel water-soluble Zn (II) phthalocyanines bearing four 4-((diethylmethylammonium)methyl)phenoxy substituents with symmetric and asymmetric charge distributions for photodynamic antibacterial activity and compared them with those of water-soluble octacationic zinc octakis(cholinyl)phthalocyanine. The obtained results allow us to conclude that the studied tetracationic aryloxy-substituted Zn(II) phthalocyanines effectively bind to the oppositely charged cell wall of the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli. This finding is supported by data on bacteria’s zeta potential neutralization in the presence of phthalocyanine derivatives and fluorescence microscopy images of stained bacterial cells. Asymmetric substitution influences the aggregation and fluorescent characteristics but has little effect on the ability of the studied tetracationic phthalocyanines to sensitize the bioluminescent E. coli K12 TG1 strain. Both symmetric and asymmetric aryloxy-substituted phthalocyanines are no less effective in PDI than the water-soluble zinc octakis(cholinyl)phthalocyanine, a photosensitizer with proven antibacterial activity, and have significant potential for further studies as antibacterial photosensitizers. Full article

Background/Objectives: Intranasal delivery is a promising approach for targeting the central nervous system (CNS); however, most of the drugs show poor permeability through the nasal mucosa. Nanocarriers such as liposomes can improve nasal drug absorption; however, the surface charge of liposomes has a key role in the nasal mucosal uptake process. Therefore, the present study aimed to formulate and compare the intranasal applicability of oppositely charged liposomes loaded with donepezil hydrochloride (DPZ) as CNS-active model compound using two different charge inducers, the negatively charged dicethyl phosphate (DCP) and the positively charged stearylamine (SA). Methods: Liposomes were prepared with a fixed phosphatidylcholine (PC)/cholesterol (CH) 7:2 molar ratio, while the effect of DCP and SA was studied in a 0.5:2 molar ratio. The most important properties for intranasal administration were studied, e.g., colloidal parameters, drug release and permeability behavior, and mucoadhesion. Results: It has been revealed that the reduction in liposome vesicle size is directly proportional to the amount of DCP, while it is inversely proportional to the amount of SA. This was also supported by the drug release studies—the lower vesicle size resulted in faster drug release. Both charge inducers increased the drug encapsulation efficiency (~60–80%) through tighter packing or increased spacing of the lipid bilayer structure. DCP also improved the in vitro nasal permeability compared to the initial DPZ solution. The positively charged SA showed more remarkable mucoadhesive properties than DCP. Conclusions: We can conclude that both charge inducers can be useful for improving nasal absorption of liposomal carriers, DCP in higher (PC:CH:DCP 7:2:2), while SA in lower concentrations (PC:CH:SA 7:2:0.5). Full article

This study targets insulation challenges in high-frequency power transformers (HFPTs), which are an integral part of the high-voltage, high-capacity isolated DC/DC converter under development for offshore renewable energy systems. We propose a nano-silicon carbide (SiC)-doped polyimide (PI) winding insulation strategy to enhance discharge resistance and thermal stability under high-frequency electric stress. Experimental results show that 10 wt% SiC doping significantly improves insulation performance, extending failure time from 17 to 50 min and reducing maximum discharge amplitude by 76%, owing to enhanced charge trapping and interfacial polarization suppression. Surface and volume resistivity measurements further confirmed the improvement; at 120 °C, the 10 wt% SiC composite maintained high surface resistivity 3.30 × 10¹⁴ Ω and volume resistivity 1.41 × 10¹⁵ Ω·cm, significantly outperforming pure PI. In contrast, 20 wt% SiC, though still resistive, showed reduced stability due to agglomeration and interfacial defects, with a surface resistivity of 2.07 × 10¹⁴ Ω and degraded dielectric performance. Dielectric analysis revealed that 10 wt% SiC suppressed dielectric constant and loss across the frequency range, while 20 wt% SiC exhibited increased values at high frequency. These results highlight 10 wt% SiC as an optimal formulation for HFPT winding insulation. Full article

Background: As of 2022, 80% of all documented microbial infections are biofilm-associated: communities of microorganisms adhered to a surface and enclosed in a complex extracellular polymeric substance (EPS). The EPS acts as a physical barrier protecting the bacteria from antimicrobial agents and host immune responses. To combat this hurdle, the application of glycoside hydrolases (GH) has been investigated due to their ability to cleave particular structural polysaccharides within the EPS, thus breaking down the protective barrier and improving antibiotic clearance. While various studies demonstrate the capacity of GHs to improve antibiotic efficacy against biofilms in combination, there is clear differential success between these treatments depending on the GH and antibiotic chosen. Due to the overlap of GH targets and antibiotic structures, it is imperative to ensure that the antibiotics in combinatorial treatments are not degraded by the GH. Methods: This study aimed to screen the GH α-amylase produced from Aspergillus oryzae (AO) and Bacillus subtilis (BS), combined with various antibiotics from different classes, charges, and mode of actions by determining MICs. against the bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) of 6 antibiotics with or without α-amylase and treat 2-day PA biofilms with antibiotics with or without GHs. Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) stability assays and Differential Scanning Fluorimetry (DSF) were conducted to determine antibiotic and GH degradation as well as antibiotic sequestration. Results: Increased MICs in the presence of GHs as well as decreased antibiotic clearance against 2-day biofilms were suggestive of antibiotic degradation. LC-MS/MS stability assays of tetracycline and ciprofloxacin in the presence and absence of α-amylase further demonstrated the α-amylase-mediated antibiotic sequestration. Differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) assays confirmed α-amylase-antibiotic interactions. Conclusions: This study suggests that α-amylase is capable of degrading and sequestering a variety of antibiotics, and the degree to which these phenomena occur varies depending upon the source of the GH. As a potential treatment for biofilm-associated infections, it is imperative that the GH + antibiotic combinations are determined compatible prior to clinical use. Full article

Background: The management of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a therapeutic challenge due to the presence of multidrug resistance (MDR) and hypoxia-induced chemoresistance, both of which substantially reduce the efficacy of conventional chemotherapy. Although certain natural compounds have shown the ability to modulate these resistance mechanisms, their clinical application is hindered by poor solubility and limited bioavailability. Among such phenolic compounds, 7-hydroxytyrosol (HTyr)—a phenolic compound from olive oil and olive leaves—has been reported to modulate hypoxia-inducible factor-1 (HIF-1). Methods: In this study, we developed hyaluronic acid (HA)-decorated solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) for the targeted and synergistic co-delivery of paclitaxel (PTX) and hydroxytyrosol carboxylic acid esters (C_n-HTyrCA), precursors that share the antioxidant biphenolic moiety with HTyr. Results: Among the formulations tested, SLNs of trilaurin (TL) exhibited the highest entrapment efficiency (EE%), optimal average particle size, Zeta potential, and good colloidal stability. Of the synthesized C_n-HTyrCA derivatives, C₈- and C₁₀-HTyrCA showed superior loading capacity. In vitro release profiles indicated a sustained drug release pattern for both nanoparticles. HA decoration led to a marked increase in particle size and induced a shift in surface charge, confirming successful decoration and suggesting enhanced targeting potential via HA-CD44 interaction. Cytotoxicity assays conducted on MDA-MB-231 cells showed that PTX-loaded TL-SLNs exerted enhanced antitumor activity, particularly when HA-decorated, and a synergistic effect was observed upon co-administration with SLNs loaded with C₈-HTyrCA. Conclusions: Overall, our findings support the potential of SLN as a promising strategy to overcome key resistance mechanisms in TNBC, enabling reduced chemotherapeutic dosing and improving therapeutic outcomes. Full article

Conventional spraying often results in poor deposition on the abaxial (lower) leaf surface and within the middle-to-lower canopy, where pest and disease pressures are typically highest. In this study, we evaluated the performance of electrostatic spraying using basil (Ocimum basilicum), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), and chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) leaves as target surfaces. A high-speed imaging system was employed to map droplet distributions on the abaxial surface, while a neighborhood-matching algorithm combined with droplet tracking was used to quantify the motion of individual droplets near the leaf. At the steady-state stage (frame 4500, 2.25 s), the number of charged droplets detected beneath the abaxial surface increased by 112% (basil), 132% (cucumber), and 213% (chili pepper) compared with non-electrostatic spraying. Smaller charged droplets exhibited higher horizontal velocities and smaller deflection angles in their trajectories near the leaf, indicating a stronger tendency to migrate toward the target surface and into the canopy interior. These findings demonstrate that electrostatic forces substantially enhance abaxial deposition and provide practical guidance for optimizing parameters for electrostatic spraying, such as droplet size, to improve spray efficiency in agricultural applications. Full article

This review provides a mechanistic framework to strategically design nanoparticles capable of efficiently crossing the blood–brain barrier (BBB), a critical limitation in neurological treatments. We systematically analyze nanoparticle–BBB transport mechanisms, including receptor-mediated transcytosis, adsorptive-mediated transcytosis, and transient barrier modulation. Essential nanoparticle parameters (size, shape, stiffness, surface charge, and biofunctionalization) are evaluated for their role in enhancing brain targeting. For instance, receptor-targeted nanoparticles can significantly enhance brain uptake, achieving levels of up to 17.2% injected dose per gram (ID/g) in preclinical glioma models. Additionally, validated preclinical models (human-derived in vitro systems, rodents, and non-human primates) and advanced imaging techniques crucial for assessing nanoparticle performance are discussed. Distinct from prior BBB nanocarrier reviews that primarily catalogue mechanisms, this work (i) derives quantitative ‘design windows’ (size 10–100 nm, aspect ratio ~2–5, near-neutral ζ) linked to transcytosis efficiency, (ii) cross-walks human-relevant in vitro/in vivo models (including TEER thresholds and NHP evidence) into a translational decision guide, and (iii) integrates regulatory/toxicology readiness (ISO 10993-4, FDA/EMA, ICH) into practical checklists. We also curate recent (2020–2025) %ID/g brain-uptake data across lipidic, polymeric, protein, inorganic, and hybrid vectors to provide actionable, evidence-based rules for BBB design. Full article