Search Results (850)

The marine ecosystem remains an unparalleled reservoir of structurally unique macromolecular biomolecules with diverse pharmaceutical applications. Among red macroalgae (Rhodophyta), the genus Gelidium Lamouroux is economically renowned as a primary industrial source of agar. Beyond its traditional hydrocolloid utility, recent molecular evidence reveals that Gelidium biomass possesses a dense matrix of non-digestible sulfated galactans, low-molecular-weight agaro-oligosaccharides, marine bromophenols, polyphenols, and mycosporine-like amino acids that have shown promising biological activities and therapeutic potential in preclinical models. Utilizing advanced green depolymerization and extraction technologies—including enzyme-assisted, ultrasound-assisted, and subcritical water extraction—these structural polysaccharides and specialized secondary metabolites can be efficiently isolated while optimizing yields and preserving bioactive functional integrity. This review comprehensively synthesizes the dual-target therapeutic modalities of Gelidium bioactives, focusing on their prebiotic modulation of the gastrointestinal microbiota and their protective effects on cutaneous tissues. In the gastrointestinal tract, Gelidium polysaccharides resist upper digestive enzymatic hydrolysis, serving as selective fermentable substrates that significantly enrich beneficial saccharolytic taxa while suppressing opportunistic pathobionts. This microbial fermentation accelerates the synthesis of short-chain fatty acids; based on established epithelial models, these organic acids provide a mechanistic rationale for upregulating epithelial tight junction proteins (zonula occludens-1, occludin, and claudin-1), theoretically supporting intestinal barrier integrity and mitigating systemic endotoxemia. Concurrently, in cutaneous tissues, selected Gelidium-derived fractions have been reported to modulate matrix metalloproteinases, including matrix metalloproteinase-1, matrix metalloproteinase-2, and matrix metalloproteinase-9, scavenge reactive oxygen species via nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 and heme oxygenase-1 pathway activation, and modulate oxidative and melanogenic pathways to support cutaneous homeostasis. Finally, we establish the theoretical framework of the gut–skin axis as an experimentally supported systemic conduit through which Gelidium-mediated intestinal homeostasis attenuates cutaneous inflammation, photoaging, and barrier disruption. We further address current bioavailability limitations, standardization hurdles, and future clinical trajectories required to translate Gelidium biomass into functional nutricosmetics and marine therapeutics. Full article

Environmental nanomaterials (ENMs) are increasingly entering agroecosystems through industrial discharges, agricultural chemicals, nanotechnology, and atmospheric deposition. Consequently, a comprehensive understanding of their interactions with plants across growth stages is essential. This narrative review synthesizes current insights into nanomaterial uptake pathways, translocation dynamics, and intracellular trafficking from seed germination to reproductive maturity. It highlights the use of integrative multi-omics techniques, namely transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and epigenomics, to elucidate molecular reprogramming in response to ENMs exposure. The data indicates that nanomaterials can significantly affect seed vigor, root architecture, photosynthetic efficiency, and other yield-related traits through coordinated regulation of stress-responsive genes, antioxidant defense mechanisms, and phytohormonal signaling pathways. Furthermore, the review underscores the role of epigenetic modifications, including DNA methylation and histone remodeling, as critical regulatory layers that govern both transient and heritable plant responses to ENMs. Metabolomic remodeling, particularly the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites and redox-related pathways, represents the primary adaptive response linking molecular disturbances to phenotypic outcomes. This manuscript proposes a systems-level framework for evaluating nano–plant interactions, bridging nanoscale physicochemical properties with physiological and yield-level outcomes. Collectively, this integrative perspective aims to enhance mechanistic clarity, support the development of predictive and sustainable nanotechnology applications in agriculture, and identify critical gaps in long-term ecological and transgenerational assessments. Full article

Background: The gut microbiota–brain axis is a highly integrated bidirectional communication network operating through neural, neuroendocrine, immune, and metabolic pathways that maintain central nervous system homeostasis and has emerged as a promising complementary therapeutic target for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders. Objective: The objective of this study is to systematically evaluate the effects of prebiotics, probiotics, and psychobiotics on gut–brain communication and neurological and behavioral outcomes, including neuroinflammatory markers, HPA-axis parameters, and microbial metabolites. Methods: A systematic review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Literature searches of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar from 2020 up to March 2026 identified 81 eligible studies (48 preclinical studies, 27 randomized controlled trials, and 6 quasi-experimental clinical studies) from 7358 records. Primary outcomes were systematically categorized into four domains: (1) cognitive performance and social/adaptive behavior; (2) neuroinflammatory markers (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β) and barrier integrity; (3) HPA-axis parameters (cortisol/corticosterone); and (4) neuroactive microbial metabolites (short-chain fatty acids and tryptophan derivatives). Methodological quality and risk of bias were assessed independently by two reviewers using the SYRCLE tool for preclinical studies and the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) tools for randomized and quasi-experimental clinical trials, with summary visualizations generated using the robvis web application (version 0.3.0). Results: Neurodegenerative diseases (n = 31; 38.3%) and mood disorders (n = 29; 35.8%) were the most frequently investigated conditions. Probiotics predominated (n = 61), followed by prebiotics (n = 12) and synbiotics (n = 8). Descriptively, 92% of included studies reported improvements in at least one evaluated outcome. However, this unweighted observation reflects effect direction rather than clinical magnitude, encompassing primary and secondary endpoints across highly heterogeneous sample sizes, study designs, and risk-of-bias profiles. Conclusions: Microbiota-targeted interventions show promise as complementary strategies for neurological disorders; however, substantial methodological heterogeneity, unstandardized dosing, and the absence of quantitative meta-analysis preclude definitive clinical recommendations. Successful translation will require harmonized protocols, strain-specific functional characterization, and precision microbiota-based trials. Full article

Leonurus japonicus is a vital herb known for its blood-activating and menstruation-regulating properties, with stachydrine being a crucial secondary metabolite contributing to these effects. Enhancing the accumulation of active ingredients is a key concern in cultivation. This study utilized a hydroponic experiment with varying inorganic nitrogen (N) concentrations (supplied as Ca(NO₃)₂·4H₂O and KNO₃) as nutrient substrates, demonstrating that exogenous nitrogen input significantly increased biomass and promoted stachyridine synthesis in L. japonicus over an extended incubation period. Analysis of key intermediates in the stachydrine synthesis pathway suggests that exogenous nitrogen enhanced the amino acid synthesis pathway in primary metabolism, promoting glycolysis and accumulating tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle substances, namely, pyruvate and α-ketoglutarate. This, in turn, enhanced the production of stachydrine precursors—glutamic acid and ornithine. Nitrogen’s involvement redirected the amino acid synthesis pathway more towards the alkaloid synthesis pathway. The study confirmed the essential role of nitrogen in promoting the quality formation of L. japonicus and provided initial evidence for the mechanism behind stachydrine formation, offering theoretical and practical insights for improving L. japonicus cultivation technology. Full article

This study investigated the biostimulant potential of endo- and exo-polysaccharides (PSHs) obtained from two Schizophyllum commune strains originating from Italy (ITA) and Serbia (SRB), with a primary focus on their ability to modulate the antioxidant defense and biochemical responses of Pisum sativum L. seedlings under optimal and drought conditions. The PSH fractions were structurally characterized by complementary spectroscopic and microscopic approaches, revealing strain- and drying-dependent differences in their structural features. The characterized PSHs were subsequently applied as seed biopriming agents, and pea seedlings were grown under two conditions: optimal growth and drought stress. Their effects were evaluated by analyzing enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant responses, together with selected physiological and biochemical traits. Among the tested treatments, exo-PSHs differentially modulated antioxidant enzymes, with SRB primarily enhancing peroxidase and glutathione peroxidase and ITA increasing ascorbate peroxidase and catalase activity. SRB PSHs, particularly exo-PSH, showed the most pronounced effects on antioxidant-related responses, enhancing ABTS scavenging activity and altering DPPH capacity by approximately 35% compared with the control. In addition, endo-PSH from the ITA strain increased chlorophyll content by 26.12% and proline levels by 1.5-fold, indicating a distinct strain-dependent effect on plant physiological responses, particularly under stress conditions. LC–MS/MS profiling of plant MeOH extracts revealed a diverse range of secondary metabolites, including phenolic compounds, e.g., liquiritigenin, ferulic, and protocatechuic acids, which may contribute to the observed antioxidant responses. Multivariate analysis further supported clear biochemical differentiation among PSH treatments and growth conditions, confirming that the responses were dependent on both PSH origin and environmental conditions. Overall, these findings demonstrate that structurally distinct S. commune PSHs can differentially modulate antioxidant defense and key biochemical traits in pea seedlings, supporting their potential as sustainable fungus-derived biostimulants for enhancing plant resilience under both optimal and drought conditions. Full article

Background/Objectives: To elucidate how flower retention regulates leaf quality formation in Dendrobium officinale and to provide a theoretical basis for high-quality leaf cultivation and high-value utilization of byproducts, D. officinale leaves were subjected to two treatments: flower retention (FR) and flower removal (FT). Methods: Quantitative analysis revealed significant differences in quality-related compounds between the two treatments. Specifically, the polysaccharide content in the FR group (8.72%) was significantly lower than that in the FT group (9.37%). Conversely, the FT group exhibited a significantly higher total flavonoid content (1.74%) compared to the FR group (1.41%). Additionally, the total phenol content in the FR group (0.90%) was significantly higher than that in the FT group (0.69%) (n = 3). Results: Compared with the FR group, the FT group exhibited significantly higher levels of total flavonoids, polysaccharides, tyrosine (Tyr), hydroxylysine (Hylys), lysine (Lys), histidine (His), and arginine (Arg). A total of 1999 (39.5%) of the 5062 annotated metabolites were accumulated significantly differently. The FT group was mainly characterized by upregulated secondary metabolites, including flavonoids. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis indicated that nucleotide metabolism, purine metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, and flavonoid biosynthesis were the core differential pathways. Furthermore, the differential metabolites exhibited a metabolic trade-off of “upregulated secondary metabolism and downregulated primary metabolism”. Conclusions: Our findings indicated that flower removal can significantly increase the active flavonoid components and amino acids in D. officinale leaves and optimize the quality of this medicinal leaf by regulating the source–sink relationship, carbon–nitrogen partitioning, and key metabolic pathways. Full article

The Northwest Xizang White Cashmere goat has a high global reputation for good goat cashmere germplasm characteristics, and its cashmere industry is the economic pillar of the herdsmen in the northwest plateau of Xizang. Cashmere is produced by the secondary hair follicles of the skin, and the key period of hair follicle development is from birth to 3 months old. This study aimed to explore how early compound nutritional intervention affects lamb growth performance and secondary hair follicle development. We assessed skin follicle density and performed skin transcriptomic and multi-omics analyses to clarify this regulatory effect. The trial was performed at the Northwest Xizang White Cashmere Goat Breeding Farm, Ritu County, Ngari region, Xizang. Thirty newborn single lambs of comparable birth status were randomly divided into control and early compound nutritional intervention groups (n = 15 per group). The results showed that early compound nutritional intervention significantly increased the secondary hair follicle density, total hair follicle density, and secondary/primary hair follicle (S/P) value of lambs (p < 0.05). However, there was no significant difference in the average cashmere fineness between the two groups (p > 0.05). The transcriptome, proteome, and metabolomics analyses of the skin revealed candidate genes related to hair follicle development and the regulation of cashmere fineness: keratin structural genes (KRT10, KRT18, KRT26), cell proliferation and adhesion-related regulatory genes (ITGB2, CSF1R, AKT1), and extracellular matrix coding genes (COL6A1, COL6A2, COL6A6). Moreover, the results revealed that key proteins related to hair follicle development include RBP4, KAP13-3, KRTAP3-1, KRTAP27-1, DKK3, ITGB2, and DUSP23. The differentially expressed metabolites, 15-Deoxy-delta12,14-Prostaglandin J2 and Thromboxane B2 (TXB2), modulate prostaglandin-associated pathways; altered pathway activity subsequently regulates the expression of hair follicle functional genes and key proteins, which may in turn indirectly regulate hair follicle growth and development, thereby affecting hair follicle density and, by extension, cashmere production performance. Therefore, early compound nutritional intervention of Northwest Xizang White Cashmere goats promotes the growth and development of secondary hair follicles. The identified candidate genes and key proteins involved in secondary hair follicle development provide a reference for exploring the mechanism of hair follicle development. Full article

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) remains a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea, with recurrence largely driven by disruption of the gut microbiota and impaired colonization resistance. Bile acids have emerged as key mediators in this process, as primary conjugated bile acids promote C. difficile spore germination, whereas microbiota-derived secondary bile acids can inhibit germination, vegetative growth, and toxin activity. Diet further modulates CDI susceptibility by shaping microbial composition, short-chain fatty acid production, bile acid transformation, epithelial barrier integrity, and intestinal inflammation. Western-style diets, and low fiber intake, may favor dysbiosis and a bile acid profile permissive to CDI, while fiber-rich and Mediterranean-type dietary patterns may support beneficial anaerobes, microbial metabolites, and mucosal resilience. This narrative review summarizes current evidence on the bile acid–diet–microbiome axis in CDI pathogenesis, recurrence, and therapy. It also discusses standard treatment limitations, microbiome-based therapeutics, dietary interventions, and emerging bile acid-targeted strategies. Understanding this axis may support future precision approaches aimed not only at suppressing C. difficile, but also at restoring microbiota function and durable colonization resistance. Full article

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.) is an aromatic species of culinary and medicinal value, but the metabolic basis of its drought response and the extent of variation among wild populations remain poorly characterized. We investigated eleven wild fennel accessions from the Mediterranean region of Croatia under control and drought conditions, combining morphological measurements with targeted profiling of 78 primary and 55 secondary metabolites. Drought significantly reduced biomass, leaf area, length, and width, while leaf dry matter content increased. Primary metabolism shifted markedly: amino acids accumulated, with asparagine and arginine increasing by over 20-fold, whereas TCA-cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) organic acids declined. Pathway analysis identified Alanine, aspartate, and glutamate metabolism as most strongly affected by drought treatment. A decline in the GSH/GSSG ratio indicated oxidative stress under water shortage. Among secondary metabolites, free hydroxycinnamic acids and flavonoid aglycones accumulated while most glycosylated flavonoids declined, and eight compounds showed genotype-dependent responses in drought conditions. These results reveal accession-specific metabolic adjustments to drought and characterize Croatian wild fennel as a genetic resource with distinct phytochemical profiles relevant to future conservation and breeding. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study examined the effect of three different cultural media—coconut coir, peat moss, and deep-water culture—on the metabolomic profiles of two tomato cultivars, Heinz and Roma. Tomato fruit quality is influenced by intricate interactions between the genotype and root-zone environment; nevertheless, little is known about how substrate-based systems compare metabolically to deep-water hydroponics. Methods: Fruit samples from both cultivars grown under controlled greenhouse conditions were analyzed using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR) spectroscopy to identify treatment-dependent biochemical changes. Polar metabolites were extracted using a methanol–water solvent solution and examined using a 600 MHz NMR spectrometer. Spectral datasets were processed and analyzed with multivariate statistical tools such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), and Orthogonal Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (OPLS-DA). Results: Distinct clustering patterns were observed, indicating both cultivar-specific and cultivation-system-dependent metabolic differentiation. The PCA model displayed excellent explanatory and predictive capacity, while supervised OPLS-DA improved group discrimination, demonstrating that both genotype and growing medium significantly influenced the chemical composition of the fruit. Soluble sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose), sugar alcohols, organic acids such as citric and malic acids, and a variety of amino acids involved in nitrogen metabolism and stress reactions were among the key distinguishing factors. Carbohydrate-related spectral areas (3.0–5.5 ppm) were highly associated with treatment separation, indicating that the cultivation system had a significant impact on carbon allocation and energy metabolism. Conclusions: Fruits grown in deep water culture have distinct metabolic fingerprints from those grown on coconut coir and peat moss, implying that root-zone oxygen availability and nutrient dynamics may influence primary and secondary metabolism. Full article

Background: γ-Valerolactone (GVL), a green volatile platform compound derived from lignocellulosic biomass, has recently been identified as one volatile organic compound produced by the plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium Stutzerimonas stutzeri NRCB010. Although our previous transcriptomic and phenotypic studies have verified that exogenous GVL can promote the growth of tomato seedlings, the global metabolic reprogramming behind this promoting effect remains unclear. Methods: Tomato seedlings were subjected to exogenous GVL treatments at three concentrations (0, 0.25, 0.5 g/L) for 24 h and 48 h separately. Combined with physiological growth measurements, ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry-based widely targeted metabolomics was applied to systematically characterize GVL-mediated metabolic reprogramming. Results: GVL remarkably improved seedling height, biomass and root development, with 0.25 g/L GVL showing the strongest promoting effect. A total of 703 metabolites including lipids, flavonoids and alkaloids were identified. Principal component analysis and orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed distinct metabolic separation between control and treated groups, verifying time and concentration dependent metabolic shifts. After 24 h, GVL activated primary pathways (the tricarboxylic acid cycle, amino acid and purine metabolism) to supply growth energy; after 48 h, central carbon and secondary biosynthetic pathways were enriched, and 0.5 g/L GVL specifically triggered defensive isoquinoline and indole alkaloid biosynthesis. Conclusions: GVL coordinately remodels primary and secondary metabolic networks to accelerate tomato seedling growth, which provides sufficient metabolomic evidence for developing GVL as a novel bio-based plant biostimulant. Full article

Artemisia annua L. is a medicinal plant characterized by a chemically diverse phytochemical profile and potential relevance for cosmetic and dermatological applications. This study investigated a hydroethanolic A. annua extract through phytochemical characterization, antioxidant evaluation, UV–Vis-based assessment of UV absorption, and exploratory molecular docking. HPLC-DAD-MS/MS supported the assignment and quantitative determination of artemisinin, chlorogenic acid, and isoquercitrin at 0.09, 0.11, and 0.21 mg/mL extract, respectively. GC–MS revealed a diverse composition comprising primary and secondary metabolites, while separate essential oil characterization identified Artemisia ketone as the predominant volatile constituent. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were 16.82 ± 0.29 mg GAE/g DW and 1.46 ± 0.14 mg RE/g DW, respectively. Concentration-dependent antioxidant activity was observed in DPPH and ABTS assays, with IC₅₀ values of 0.77 ± 0.13 and 0.092 mg dry plant material equivalent/mL reaction mixture, respectively. UV–Vis analysis showed concentration-dependent increases in spectrophotometrically estimated SPF within the evaluated analytical range. At 1.25 mg/mL, the extract exhibited an SPF estimate of 7.20 ± 0.35, a UVA/UVB absorbance ratio of 2.58, and a critical wavelength of 379.3 nm, indicating that UV absorption extended substantially into the UVA region. Exploratory molecular docking yielded the most favorable AutoDock Vina scores for chlorogenic acid toward MMP-1 (−9.0 kcal/mol) and isoquercitrin toward human neutrophil elastase (−8.0 kcal/mol). Overall, A. annua represents a source of phytochemicals with experimentally demonstrated antioxidant activity and measurable UV-absorbing properties, supporting further investigation in appropriately formulated and validated topical systems. Full article

Green tea quality is largely determined by the metabolite profile of fresh leaves. However, the time-of-day-dependent dynamics of these metabolites remain largely unknown in Xinyang Maojian (XYMJ), a premium Chinese green tea. In this study, we performed the first integrative transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis of Camellia sinensis cv. Xinyang 10 shoots (one bud and one leaf) sampled at 7:00, 13:00, and 18:00 under field conditions with light intensities of 19.2, 113, and 5.4 klx, respectively. We identified 525 differentially accumulated metabolites and 19,767 differentially expressed genes exhibiting distinct time-of-day-dependent patterns. Physiological measurements confirmed significant fluctuations in starch, soluble sugars, chlorophyll, relative water content, and polyphenols throughout the daytime. A key finding was a daytime carbon allocation trade-off: primary metabolism (starch biosynthesis, glycolysis, TCA cycle) peaked at 13:00, whereas secondary metabolism (flavonoids, theaflavins, phenolic acids, anthocyanins) dominated at 18:00, supported by strong negative correlations between primary and secondary metabolic modules. Chlorophyll and oligomeric catechins peaked at 7:00; theaflavins at 13:00; and starch, soluble sugars, theanine, and organic acids at 18:00. Light-responsive transcription factors (bZIP, NF-Y, HD-Zip, SPL, ARF, MADS) and other regulators (MYB, AP2/ERF, WRKY, NAC, GRAS, bHLH) exhibited time-specific expression, sequentially modulating flavonoid, caffeine, and theanine biosynthesis, along with specific gene modules including SS3/SS4 (starch synthesis), BAM3 (starch degradation), FBA1 (carbon fixation), CYP72A219 (terpenoid metabolism), and L7A (theaflavin biosynthesis). Evening-harvested leaves accumulated higher levels of theanine (umami) and soluble sugars (sweetness), whereas morning leaves were enriched in astringent catechins and flavonols. This multi-omics dissection of time-of-day-dependent metabolism in XYMJ tea provides a scientific basis for time-of-day harvesting strategies and graded processing of tea products. Full article

Dietary polyphenols are plant-derived secondary metabolites recognized as highly bioactive molecules. One of their most significant biological properties is their antioxidant potential. In the present study, the antioxidant capacities of commonly consumed dietary polyphenolic compounds were comparatively evaluated. Antioxidant activities were assessed using sing ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazy (DPPH) radical scavenging assays. Twenty-three polyphenol standards were classified into two primary groups, phenolic acids and flavonoids, each further divided into their respective subclasses, and their antioxidant capacities were examined in relation to structural features. Among the phenolic acids, gallic acid (11.29 ± 0.05 µmol Trolox equivalents/mg), protocatechuic acid (6.69 ± 0.04), syringic acid (5.76 ± 0.03), caffeic acid (4.76 ± 0.02), and ellagic acid (4.65 ± 0.07) exhibited the highest FRAP activities. Among the flavonoids, quercetin (5.98 ± 0.03), epicatechin (2.69 ± 0.02), and resveratrol (2.59 ± 0.01) were the most potent antioxidants. Compounds such as chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid phenethyl ester (CAPE), rutin, and luteolin displayed moderate antioxidant activity, whereas p-hydroxybenzoic acid, pinocembrin, chrysin, daidzein, hesperetin, t-cinnamic acid, and myricetin showed markedly low activity. These results indicate that antioxidant capacity of polyphenols is strongly influenced by both the number and the positions of hydroxyl groups on their aromatic rings, highlighting the critical role of structural features in determining their redox potential. Full article

Medicinal plants remain one of the most important sources of therapeutically relevant compounds for pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and biotechnological applications. However, the naturally low abundance of many specialized metabolites, considerable phytochemical variability, and increasing environmental pressures continue to limit the sustainable exploitation of plant-derived bioactive compounds. This review summarizes current strategies aimed at identifying, understanding, and enhancing the production of medicinally valuable metabolites while highlighting both biological limitations and emerging technological opportunities. Particular attention is given to the interplay between primary and secondary metabolism and its role in determining biosynthetic efficiency in both natural and engineered systems. Beyond discussing established methodologies, this review adopts a broader perspective by incorporating less frequently addressed aspects, including the influence of climate change on metabolite production, the application of bioinformatics-supported approaches to improve bioprospecting efficiency, and the growing role of nanoparticles as elicitors in plant biotechnology. These topics are considered alongside advances in tissue culture technologies, metabolic engineering, molecular approaches, and systems-level analyses aimed at improving metabolite yield and production stability. Current evidence suggests that no single technological framework is sufficient to address the complexity of medicinal plant metabolism. Hence, rather than presenting individual technologies as isolated solutions to specific biosynthetic bottlenecks, this review emphasizes that medicinal plant metabolism should be considered a highly interconnected system in which environmental, molecular, and physiological factors collectively determine production outcomes. Full article