Search Results (1,036)

Endocrine disorders and inherent flaws in oocyte quality are traditional causes of female infertility. Increasing research indicates that structural and biomechanical alterations in the ovarian microenvironment may significantly contribute to reproductive decline. Progressive extracellular matrix remodeling, stromal fibrosis, chronic inflammation, and heightened tissue stiffness seem to affect follicular homeostasis, granulosa–oocyte communication, and ovarian function. Fibro-inflammatory pathways, including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), Hippo/YAP-TAZ signaling, oxidative stress, macrophage activation, and mechanotransduction, are increasingly associated with ovarian ageing, polycystic ovary syndrome, reduced ovarian reserve, and unfavourable reproductive outcomes. Here, the term ‘fibro-inflammatory ovary’ is used descriptively to unify these mechanisms rather than as an established clinical entity. Mechanical alterations of the ovarian stroma may affect follicular activation, vascularization, and oocyte competence by altering cellular tension and extracellular matrix dynamics. Our review examines growing findings about ovarian fibrosis and stromal remodeling in female infertility, focusing on molecular causes, mechanobiology, and translational implications for assisted reproduction. Potential diagnostic uses, such as ovarian elastography, and prospective anti-fibrotic therapy techniques are also examined. Full article

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a multifactorial endocrine disorder characterized by chronic inflammation, insulin resistance, and reproductive dysfunction. Although empagliflozin, a sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor, has demonstrated anti-inflammatory and metabolic benefits, its molecular mechanisms in PCOS remain poorly understood. This study investigated the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of empagliflozin in PCOS using network pharmacology, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics simulations. Potential drug targets were identified using SwissTargetPrediction and SuperPred, while PCOS- and inflammation-related genes were obtained from GeneCards. Overlapping targets were subjected to Gene Ontology, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, protein–protein interaction network, and hub gene analyses. Molecular docking and 50 ns molecular dynamics simulations were performed to evaluate binding affinity and complex stability. Key inflammatory targets identified included TNF, IL6, IL1B, TLR4, STAT3, and PTGS2, with significant enrichment in cytokine-mediated signaling, TNF signaling, and NF-κB pathways. Empagliflozin showed strong binding affinities for PTGS2 (−9.0 kcal/mol) and TLR4 (−8.8 kcal/mol), while molecular dynamics simulations demonstrated stable protein–ligand complexes throughout the simulation. These findings suggest that empagliflozin may alleviate PCOS-associated inflammation by modulating the TLR4/NF-κB/PTGS2 signaling axis, supporting its potential as a repurposed therapeutic agent for PCOS and providing a foundation for future experimental validation. Full article

Background/Objectives: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is closely associated with insulin resistance, metabolic syndrome (MetS), and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD); however, whether fatty pancreas disorder is also more common in PCOS remains insufficiently clarified. This study aimed to compare the frequency of hepatic and fatty pancreas disorder and tissue stiffness between women with PCOS and a healthy control group and to determine the relationship of these findings with metabolic and biochemical parameters. Methods: In this retrospective case–control study, 40 women diagnosed with PCOS according to the 2003 Rotterdam criteria and 40 age- and body mass index (BMI)-matched healthy women were evaluated by abdominal ultrasonography and two-dimensional shear wave elastography (2D-SWE) of the liver and pancreas. Four validated non-invasive indices of hepatic steatosis (NAFLD liver fat score, lipid accumulation product [LAP], hepatic steatosis index [HSI], FIB-4, APRI) were calculated and correlated with clinical, anthropometric, and biochemical data. MetS was defined according to International Diabetes Federation (IDF) criteria. Results: Fatty pancreas disorder was detected in 47.5% of PCOS patients versus 17.5% of controls (p = 0.008); hepatic steatosis was found in 37.5% and 15%, respectively (p = 0.04); these differences were observed despite similar age and BMI between groups. LAP and HSI scores were higher in the PCOS group (p = 0.02 and p = 0.005, respectively), as were serum triglyceride and total testosterone levels (p = 0.001 and p = 0.005, respectively). Overall MetS frequency did not differ between the PCOS and control groups (p = 0.61) but was significantly higher among participants with fatty pancreas disorder (p = 0.009) and hepatic steatosis (p = 0.05). Hepatic and pancreatic 2D-SWE values were significantly higher in participants with steatosis than in those without (p = 0.02 and p = 0.04, respectively), and both correlated positively with BMI (p < 0.001 and p = 0.003, respectively). Conclusions: The frequency of fatty pancreas disorder and hepatic steatosis is increased in women with PCOS independent of obesity, and both are associated with a higher frequency of MetS; the association between fatty pancreas disorder and PCOS remained significant in a multivariable analysis adjusted for BMI. Fatty pancreas disorder showed a stronger association with MetS, suggesting that it may serve as an early, low-cost, ultrasound-detectable marker of metabolic risk in PCOS and warrants systematic evaluation alongside hepatic steatosis. Full article

Background/Objectives: Women with polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS) are known to be at higher risk of developing metabolic-related disorders. Here, we conducted a retrospective observational study to compare physical and laboratory findings associated with PMOS across different generations. Methods: We analyzed 470 medical records from 155 patients with PMOS from December 2002 to March 2023. Demographic, metabolic, and hormonal data were extracted and compared among age groups: <30, 30s, and ≥40 years. Results: The 30s group had significantly higher total cholesterol and glycated hemoglobin levels than the <30 group, while the ≥40 group had significantly higher diastolic blood pressure than both the <30 and 30s groups. The ≥40 group had significantly higher follicle-stimulating hormone and lower testosterone levels than both the <30 and 30s groups. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate levels and ovarian volume also differed significantly among the three groups, with both parameters decreasing with age. No significant differences in fasting glucose, fasting insulin, or homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance were observed among the three groups. In multivariable linear mixed-effects models including age, BMI, and PMOS diagnostic criteria, BMI was independently associated with a broader range of metabolic parameters than age, whereas age was independently associated with follicle-stimulating hormone, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, and ovarian volume. Conclusions: The present findings suggest that metabolic risk factors may emerge from a relatively young age in women with PMOS, with BMI showing broader associations with metabolic parameters than age. These observations support current recommendations for long-term metabolic monitoring and lifestyle management in women with PMOS. Full article

Background/Objectives: Female infertility represents a significant public health issue. Available evidence supports the hypothesis that the gut microbiota may play an essential role in women’s reproductive health and may serve as a diagnostic or prognostic biomarker in specific gynecological disorders. A substantial part of current research concerns disturbed communication between the hypothalamic–pituitary–ovarian axis and the gut microbiota, providing the basis for analyzing this phenomenon as the gut–ovary axis or the gut–vagina–ovary axis. The primary aim of this scoping review was to map the available evidence on the relationship between gut microbiota composition and female infertility, with particular emphasis on polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS, currently polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome, PMOS) endometriosis, and uterine fibroids. Methods: The review was conducted in accordance with the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR). PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched using terms related to gut microbiota, female infertility, PCOS, endometriosis, and uterine leiomyomas. Peer-reviewed publications in English published between 2015 and 2025 were considered. The included studies were descriptively synthesized to identify recurring microbiota patterns and research gaps. Results: The reviewed evidence indicates that gut dysbiosis may be associated with selected gynecological disorders affecting fertility, including PCOS, endometriosis, and uterine fibroids. The gut microbiome may have potential value as a biomarker supporting diagnosis, treatment selection, and prognosis. Conclusions: The gut microbiome represents a promising but still insufficiently validated area in the management of gynecological diseases associated with female infertility. Further high-quality clinical studies are needed to verify the effectiveness of microbiome-based therapies and to develop evidence-based guidelines for managing infertility associated with gut dysbiosis. Full article

Polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome (PMOS), renamed from polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) by global consensus in May 2026, is one of the most common endocrine diseases in women of reproductive age, affecting physical and mental health. Growing evidence suggests that medicine–food homology (MFH) plants and their bioactive compounds may help regulate PMOS-related metabolism and reproductive abnormalities through dietary intervention. This review summarizes their reported roles and potential mechanisms. Based on the existing literature, this review presents nine edible plant resources identified under the MFH/dietary-use framework and 21 bioactive constituents or constituent classes, all selected for detailed synthesis from a broader eligible evidence base and with reported PMOS-related bioactivity. Across preclinical studies, these constituents appear to act through convergent, multi-target mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities to reduce systemic inflammation, as well as restoring hormone balance, correcting abnormal lipid metabolism, relieving insulin resistance and protecting ovarian function. Importantly, the evidence base remains predominantly preclinical, with few human randomized trials. Key translational barriers include insufficient standardization of preparations and doses, limited oral bioavailability of several constituents, safety and herb–drug interaction concerns, and uncertain formulation feasibility for functional-food applications. By integrating evidence at the plant and compound levels, this review provides a mechanistic rationale—rather than clinical proof—for further investigation of dietary strategies relevant to PMOS and proposes a framework for the development and evaluation of MFH-based functional foods. Full article

Embryo implantation is a highly selective and hormonally regulated event, critically dependent on endometrial receptivity and the molecular microenvironment of uterine fluid (UF). UF is actively secreted by endometrial glands and epithelial cells and comprises proteins, metabolites, hormones, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) carrying miRNAs, lncRNAs, and regulatory proteins. These components coordinate embryo development, trophoblast invasion, angiogenesis, and maternal–fetal immune tolerance. Dysregulation of UF composition is increasingly implicated in reproductive disorders, including recurrent implantation failure, unexplained infertility, endometriosis, adenomyosis, and polycystic ovary syndrome, highlighting its potential as a noninvasive biomarker of endometrial function. Despite advances, challenges remain in standardizing UF sampling, addressing temporal and inter-individual variability, and elucidating upstream regulatory networks. Integrative multi-omics analyses, functional organoid–embryo models, and longitudinal clinical studies are essential to translate UF insights into predictive diagnostics and therapeutic strategies, ultimately improving implantation success and reproductive outcomes. Full article

Objective: Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) is the most widely used biochemical marker of ovarian reserve, but its associations with other reproductive hormones are usually examined one hormone at a time and without accounting for values reported at the assay floor. This study examined the associations between serum AMH and age, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinising hormone (LH), estradiol, progesterone and prolactin in women attending a tertiary gynaecology clinic. Materials and Methods: In this retrospective, cross-sectional, single-centre study, the records of women who underwent serum AMH testing together with a reproductive hormone panel between 1 January 2020 and 31 December 2025 were reviewed. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome, primary ovarian insufficiency, pregnancy or previous ovarian surgery were excluded. Bivariate associations were assessed with Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients on raw and Box–Cox-transformed variables. Because 12.82% (n = 15) of AMH results were left-censored at the analytical reporting floor of 0.02 ng/mL, a multivariable Tobit model with the censoring limit specified on the Box–Cox-transformed scale (λ = 0.309, threshold = −2.270) was fitted, with predictors selected a priori on clinical grounds. Sensitivity analyses examined the influence of high AMH values, an alternative transformation of AMH, and flexible modelling of age. Results: The analysis included 117 women aged 18–45 years. Mean AMH was 2.22 ± 2.24 ng/mL [median 1.61 ng/mL (Q1–Q3, 0.36–3.20)]. In bivariate correlation analysis, AMH showed statistically significant inverse associations with age (r = −0.376, p < 0.001) and FSH (r = −0.445, p < 0.001), whereas LH, estradiol, progesterone, and prolactin showed no statistically significant correlations with AMH (all p > 0.10). In the multivariable Tobit model, only age (β = −0.068; 95% CI [−0.117, −0.018]; p = 0.007) and transformed FSH (β = −3.582; 95% CI [−4.846, −2.317]; p < 0.001) remained independently associated with transformed AMH. LH, estradiol, progesterone, and prolactin were not independently associated with AMH in the multivariable model (all p > 0.05). The standardised association was greater for transformed FSH (β* = −0.559) than for age (β* = −0.234). The associations of age and FSH were consistent in direction and magnitude across all sensitivity analyses. Conclusions: In this selected clinical sample, age and FSH were the only variables independently associated with serum AMH after mutual adjustment. LH, estradiol, progesterone, and prolactin showed no statistically significant associations with AMH in either the unadjusted bivariate analyses or the multivariable model. The absence of independent associations for these hormones should be interpreted cautiously because hormone sampling was not standardised to menstrual cycle day, which may have introduced measurement variability. These findings describe associations within the study population and do not establish causal relationships, reference intervals, or a basis for modifying testing strategies. The analysis also highlights the importance of accounting for left-censoring when modelling AMH data containing a substantial proportion of results at the assay reporting floor. Full article

Background/Objectives: Reproductive-health topics such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, fertility, and menstruation attract both unsupported claims and stigmatizing framing on social media. We present an evidence-grounded pipeline combining large language models (LLMs) with biomedical retrieval, extended with a novel layer that scores the stigma framing of each claim independently of its truth. Methods: From 991 keyword-sampled English-language Bluesky posts we extracted 937 health claims, grounded each in evidence from PubMed, openFDA, and authoritative clinical guidelines (ACOG, NICE, NHS, WHO), and classified veracity into five categories using only the retrieved evidence. A parallel module scored five stigma dimensions and, separately, empowerment as a counter-stigma indicator. Results: Most claims (75.2%) were non-supported, though a relevance audit shows this largely records evidence that was not retrieved rather than claims shown to be false; the dominant frame was empowerment rather than overt shame. Stigma increased monotonically as claims departed from the evidence. The gradient was modest but robust (Kruskal–Wallis $p < {10}^{-7}$, ${\epsilon }^2 = 0.039$; $\rho = 0.20$), surviving cluster-aware reanalysis of claims nested within posts. Stigma varied sharply by condition, highest for infertility and endometriosis. Conclusions: Non-supported claims and stigmatizing framing co-occur, though this cross-sectional design cannot establish a direction. Single-coder validation was a pilot diagnostic check: stigma scores aligned directionally with human judgment, while five-way veracity agreement was limited. Results describe this keyword-sampled, single-platform corpus, not platform-wide prevalence. Full article

Chronic non-communicable conditions—type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T1DM, T2DM), metabolic obesity syndrome (MOS), polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), colorectal and extra-intestinal cancers, and systemic autoimmune disease—share a prolonged asymptomatic phase during which conventional screening is invasive, insensitive, or resource-intensive. This review synthesizes the 2021–2026 literature on fecal microbiome-based artificial intelligence (AI) diagnostics across these conditions, extracting reported discrimination, validation strategy, microbial and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) biomarkers, and cross-cohort reproducibility. Across the primary classifier studies tabulated here, reported areas under the curve (AUCs) span 0.76–0.99 under internal validation but 0.69–0.91 under external or cross-population validation; in the four studies reporting both, the median AUC falls from 0.875 to 0.810. Verified external-validation values include 0.82 for colorectal cancer, 0.79 for T2DM and 0.792 for discrimination of systemic lupus erythematosus from rheumatoid arthritis and controls. Clinical readiness turns on this internal-to-external gap more than on the headline AUC. We propose a multimodal deep learning architecture coupled with explainable AI; no component has been implemented or evaluated on data, and it is presented as a design proposal. Fecal-microbiome-based multimodal AI is technically feasible but clinically unvalidated, pending prospective, harmonized cross-cohort trials. Full article

Endometrial cancer is increasingly diagnosed in patients who have not yet completed childbearing. For carefully selected patients with grade 1 endometrioid endometrial carcinoma confined to the endometrium, fertility-sparing treatment (FST) can preserve reproductive potential but requires rigorous histologic surveillance. In eligible patients, oral progestins and/or the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) remain the mainstay of fertility-sparing treatment, with hysteroscopic lesion resection incorporated in selected cases. Obesity, polycystic ovary syndrome, abnormalities in glucose metabolism, molecular subtype, and primary or acquired progestin resistance collectively contribute to heterogeneity in treatment response and the risk of recurrence. This narrative review critically integrates current guidelines, randomized controlled trials, prospective studies, retrospective cohorts, and early exploratory evidence to evaluate the biological rationale, clinical positioning, efficacy, safety, and maturity of evidence for progestin-based therapy, metabolic interventions, combined endocrine approaches, molecularly guided strategies, and exploratory immunotherapeutic approaches. We further propose an integrated clinical pathway encompassing candidate selection, molecular assessment, response evaluation, transition to pregnancy, retreatment after recurrence, and timely conversion to definitive surgery. Importantly, this review distinguishes guideline-supported approaches from adjunctive, investigational, and exploratory strategies. Major evidence gaps include inconsistent definitions of treatment response, limited prospective molecularly stratified data, uncertain reproductive safety of emerging systemic therapies, and insufficient long-term data on pregnancy outcomes and offspring. Full article

Objective: Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCAH) overlap clinically, but direct comparative data specifically addressing non-National Institutes of Health (non-NIH) Rotterdam phenotypes of polycystic ovary syndrome are limited. We compared women with polycystic ovary syndrome, of whom 66.7% were classified as having non-NIH Rotterdam phenotypes, with women with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia and healthy controls to characterize the extent of phenotypic overlap and evaluate the discriminatory performance of individual androgen measures. Methods: This single-center, prospective, exploratory cross-sectional study evaluated 58 women divided into three groups: PCOS (n = 24, Rotterdam criteria), NCAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency (n = 16, previously confirmed by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-stimulated 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP)), and healthy controls (n = 18). Demographic, clinical, metabolic, and hormonal parameters were compared using analysis of variance (ANOVA), Kruskal–Wallis with Dunn’s post hoc test (Bonferroni-adjusted), and chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests. A sensitivity analysis was performed after excluding 12 participants receiving oral contraceptives (n = 8) or glucocorticoids (n = 4). Results: Within the PCOS group, 66.7% had non-NIH Rotterdam phenotypes. Hirsutism, defined as a modified Ferriman–Gallwey (mFG) score ≥ 8, was more frequent in both patient groups than in controls (p = 0.003) but did not differ between PCOS and NCAH. Total testosterone levels were 0.40 [0.20–0.60], 0.59 [0.45–0.94], and 0.20 [0.15–0.20] ng/mL in the PCOS, NCAH, and control groups, respectively, and androstenedione levels were 1.40 [1.20–2.20], 2.55 [1.64–4.07], and 0.87 [0.56–1.00] ng/mL, respectively; both were higher in the patient groups than in controls (both p < 0.001), without differing between PCOS and NCAH. Basal 17-OHP was the only parameter distinguishing NCAH from both PCOS and controls (p < 0.001). Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels were 356.5 [217–422], 292 [156–448], and 219 [146–240] µg/dL, respectively (p = 0.020), with a significant difference only between PCOS and controls. Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) levels were 3.27 [3.02–4.13], 3.13 [2.87–3.54], and 3.34 [2.93–5.37] ng/mL, respectively, with no between-group difference (p = 0.600). Other metabolic parameters, gonadotropins, estradiol, and prolactin showed no between-group differences. The principal hormonal findings remained unchanged after excluding women receiving oral contraceptives or glucocorticoids. Conclusions: In this PCOS cohort, in which 66.7% of women were classified as having non-NIH Rotterdam phenotypes, PCOS and NCAH showed substantial clinical, metabolic, and hormonal overlap, whereas basal early-follicular 17-OHP was the only parameter that consistently distinguished NCAH from both PCOS and healthy controls. These findings support the inclusion of basal 17-OHP in the evaluation of women presenting with hyperandrogenism. Full article

Background: Polyendocrine Metabolic Ovarian Syndrome (PMOS), previously known as Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), is one of the most common endocrine disorders affecting women of reproductive age and represents a major cause of infertility worldwide. It is associated with hormonal imbalance, ovulatory dysfunction, and metabolic disturbances, all of which can significantly impair reproductive outcomes and quality of life. We aimed to investigate the metabolic and hormonal markers in infertile women who had PMOS in one of the rapidly developing Middle Eastern countries. Methods: This was a retrospective observational cohort study conducted at the Military Medical Specialist Center in Qatar (2019–2024). Data were extracted from patient medical records, including demographic characteristics, clinical presentation, hormonal profiles, metabolic parameters, and details of fertility treatment. Women aged 18–40 years diagnosed with PMOS according to the Rotterdam criteria were included. Correlation coefficient analysis was performed to assess the associations between PMOS-related factors. Patients were categorized by BMI (normal, overweight, and obese). Results: The mean age of patients was 31.9 ± 5.3 years, and 43.8% of patients were obese. Primary infertility was more frequent than secondary infertility (61.8% vs. 38.2%). Women with secondary infertility were significantly older and had higher body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.001 and p = 0.01, respectively). Insulin resistance was prominent (mean Homeostatic Model Assessment for Insulin Resistance [HOMA-IR] of 4.04) and increased significantly with the increase in BMI (p = 0.01). BMI showed positive correlations with serum levels of glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, and testosterone. Hormonal parameters were largely comparable between infertility groups, except for lower FSH levels in secondary infertility (p = 0.04). The proportion of PMOS based on the HOMA-IR category was 5.6% (HOMA-IR < 1.0), 23.4% (HOMA-IR 1–1.99), 20.2% (HOMA-IR 2–2.99), and 50.8% (HOMA-IR > 3.00). In PMOS patients, there was a significant association between obesity and HOMA-IR, with each 1-unit increase in HOMA-IR associated with a 14% increase in odds (crude odds ratio 1.14; 95% confidence interval 1.02–1.28, p = 0.02). Also, obesity was associated with low LH/FSH (crude odds ratio, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.45–0.99; p = 0.04). Results: The mean age of patients was 31.9 ± 5.3 years, and 43.8% of patients were obese. Primary infertility was more frequent than secondary infertility (61.8% vs. 38.2%). Insulin resistance was prominent (mean HOMA-IR 4.04) and increased significantly across BMI categories (3.0 in normal-weight vs. 4.8 in obese women, p = 0.01). BMI was positively correlated with HOMA-IR (r = 0.17, p = 0.02) and testosterone levels (r = 0.18, p = 0.01). Secondary infertility became more frequent with increasing BMI (p = 0.02). Each 1-unit increase in HOMA-IR was associated with a 14% increase in the odds of obesity (OR 1.14, 95% CI 1.02–1.28, p = 0.02). Conclusions: Among infertile women with PMOS, obesity and insulin resistance were prominent metabolic characteristics. These findings support routine screening for insulin resistance, particularly in overweight and obese women, together with weight management and individualized fertility treatment based on BMI and metabolic profiles. Full article

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a heterogeneous endocrine–metabolic disorder frequently associated with insulin resistance (IR) and increased cardiovascular risk. Soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) and soluble E-selectin (sE-selectin) are circulating biomarkers reflecting immune activation and endothelial dysfunction, respectively. However, their differential associations with IR in PCOS, particularly in the context of central obesity, remain incompletely understood. This cross-sectional study included 80 women with PCOS stratified according to waist-to-height ratio (WHtR > 0.50 vs. ≤0.50). Clinical, metabolic, hormonal, inflammatory, and endothelial parameters were evaluated. Correlation and multivariable regression analyses were performed to identify independent determinants of circulating sCD40L and sE-selectin. Women with central obesity exhibited significantly higher fasting insulin, homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), triglycerides, non-high-density lipoprotein (non-HDL) cholesterol, systolic blood pressure (SBP), and sE-selectin concentrations, together with lower HDL cholesterol. No significant differences were observed in tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), or sCD40L. In adjusted regression models, fasting glucose independently predicted sCD40L (β = −0.27, 95% confidence interval (CI): −0.50 to −0.04, p = 0.020), whereas fasting insulin emerged as the strongest determinant of sE-selectin (β = 0.41, 95% CI: 0.17 to 0.65, p < 0.001). These findings suggest distinct associations of immune and endothelial biomarkers with IR in PCOS. Assessment of sCD40L and sE-selectin may provide complementary information for early cardiometabolic risk stratification in affected women. Full article

Background: Newly named Polyendocrine Metabolic Ovarian Syndrome (PMOS), previously Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS), affects women worldwide. The prevalence of PCOS is thought to range from 5 to 15% depending on the diagnostic criteria used. The 2023 International Evidence-Based Guidelines for the Assessment and Management of PCOS recognize the 2003 Rotterdam criteria as the gold standard diagnostic tool. The objective was to examine the global prevalence of PCOS across diagnostic criteria, phenotypes, geographical locations, races, and ethnicities by reviewing current research. Methods: Researchers searched PubMed, PsycINFO, and Scopus. The study included 27 articles. Results: Prevalence varies globally, ranging from 1.6% to 28.5% in North America. In Brazil, the prevalence was 30.4%. Europe showed rates ranging from 5.9% to 19.9%. In Asia, the prevalence ranged from 4.21% in rural India to 35.3% in the Kashmir Valley. Oceania showed a prevalence of 6.8% among Samoan women and 12% in Australian women. The Middle East ranged from 1.6% in Dubai to 48.5% in Pakistan. In Africa, the prevalence was 32.5% in Sudan. Conclusions: The study’s findings highlight significant variations in the prevalence and phenotype distributions influenced by demographic factors and diagnostic criteria. Limitations include inconsistent diagnostic criteria, underrepresentation of geographical regions, and reliance on self-reported data, emphasizing the importance of using standardized diagnostic criteria and focused research. Full article