Search Results (613)

Fungal contamination and mycotoxins remain important hazards in cereal, nut, oilseed, and processed-food chains. For grain handlers, processors, storage facilities, quality-assurance laboratories, and technology developers, the practical challenge is not only detection but determining when an AI-enabled optical output is sufficiently documented to support accepting, holding, sorting, or referring material for confirmatory analysis. This critical narrative review, supported by structured evidence appraisal, examines artificial intelligence (AI)-enabled hyperspectral imaging (HSI) for fungal and mycotoxin risk management. The focused evidence map comprises a combined 20-study evidence map, including 17 spectral-imaging studies and three contextual non-imaging near-infrared studies addressing aflatoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), fungal status, and co-contamination; no patulin-specific AI-HSI study met the defined corpus criteria. Most evidence remains laboratory-based, with controlled contamination, limited independent validation, incomplete transfer testing, or no line-level demonstration. The review proposes the preliminary Food–AI Deployment-Readiness Framework (F-AIDRF), a non-regulatory appraisal tool covering analytical validity, algorithmic robustness, explainability and auditability, transferability and maintenance, operational feasibility, and decision integration. Applied descriptively, F-AIDRF is intended to reveal missing evidence, not to certify technologies. For food-industry readers, it offers a practical vocabulary for comparing screen-sort-confirm systems before investment, pilot testing, or regulatory-facing use. Full article

Background/Objective: Cinnamaldehyde (CA) is a naturally occurring bioactive compound derived from the leaves, bark, roots, and flowers of the Chinese medicinal plant Cinnamomum cassia. It exhibits a broad spectrum of pharmacological properties, encompassing antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-diabetic, antifungal, and anticancer activities. Notably, it has shown potential therapeutic benefits in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Ochratoxin A (OTA), a common contaminant found in foods such as cereals, coffee, and raisins, is also present in traditional Chinese medicinal materials, including Astragalus and liquorice. T2DM and NAFLD share intertwined pathophysiological pathways, including insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, chronic low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress, with insulin resistance serving as the common pathological hub for both conditions. Consequently, they frequently co-occur and exacerbate each other. OTA exerts dual-targeted toxicity to the pancreas and liver, which may synergistically drive the development of the comorbidity of T2DM and NAFLD. These two processes are mutually causal and together constitute the pathological basis of metabolic comorbidity. Methods: Network toxicology employs toxicological data, gene expression, and protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks to predict the targets of toxins, while network pharmacology, based on systems biology principles, reveals how drugs exert regulatory effects through multiple targets and pathways. In this study, we employed an integrated network toxicology and network pharmacology approach to jointly decipher the potential mechanisms by which CA intervenes in OTA-induced comorbid T2DM-NAFLD. First, a network toxicology approach was employed to preliminarily screen for core toxicological targets responsible for OTA’s pathogenicity. Subsequently, network pharmacology was used to identify potential targets of CA-mediated intervention in the disease. Finally, the common overlap among the CA intervention targets, OTA toxicity targets, and disease targets was defined as the final set of potential targets for CA-mediated intervention in OTA-induced T2DM-NAFLD comorbidity. A PPI network was constructed using the STRING database, and topological analysis was performed with Cytoscape. Core targets were selected using the median values of six parameters—betweenness centrality, closeness centrality, degree centrality, eigenvector centrality, LAC (local average connectivity) score, and network centrality—as cut-off thresholds, and the top 10 key genes were further identified using the cytoHubba plugin. Gene Ontology (GO) functional enrichment and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were conducted via the DAVID database, and the results were visualized on the CNSknowall platform. Lastly, molecular docking of the core targets was performed using the CB-DOCK2 platform to validate binding affinity. Results: Based on an integrated analysis of network toxicology, network pharmacology, and molecular docking, 10 key targets were systematically identified. These may serve as potential mediators of cinnamaldehyde in the treatment of OTA-induced T2DM-NAFLD comorbidity. Among these, six targets—albumin (ALB), glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor (TNF), actin beta (ACTB), and estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1)—possess crystal structures amenable to molecular docking. KEGG enrichment analysis revealed that CA and OTA jointly participate in key pathological processes such as the cancer pathway, the lipid and atherosclerosis pathway, the advanced glycation end-products–receptor for advanced glycation end-products (AGE-RAGE) signaling pathway, the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase–protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathway, the TNF signaling pathway, and the interleukin-17 (IL-17) signaling pathway. OTA exacerbates inflammatory responses, impairs insulin signaling, promotes hepatic steatosis, and disrupts systemic metabolic homeostasis, ultimately contributing to T2DM-NAFLD comorbidity. Conversely, cinnamaldehyde counteracts these pathological processes through multiple mechanisms, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects as well as regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism, thereby restoring metabolic homeostasis. Conclusions: This study has preliminarily identified the toxicological targets of OTA and the potential intervention targets of CA, offering new avenues for preventing and intervening in OTA-induced metabolic toxicity. Furthermore, it provides a theoretical basis for CA as a potential multi-target therapeutic agent and presents novel insights worthy of further investigation into the prevention of T2DM-NAFLD comorbidity. Full article

Aspergillus westerdijkiae, a filamentous fungus commonly isolated from pickled vegetables and high-salt condiments, can cause spoilage and produce nephrotoxic ochratoxin A (OTA) under saline conditions. However, its adaptive mechanisms to salt stress remain unclear. To address this, the pickle-derived strain NDX1 was subjected to 0, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mol/L NaCl treatments. Colony growth was assessed after 7 days of incubation on PDA plates supplemented with the respective NaCl concentrations. For physiological indices, mycelia were pre-cultured in salt-free PDB for 5 days, followed by the addition of NaCl to final concentrations (0, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 mol/L) and further incubation for 2 days, after which relative electrical conductivity (REC) and malondialdehyde (MDA) content were measured. Colony diameters were recorded to evaluate vegetative growth; REC was determined by conductometry to assess cell membrane permeability; and MDA content was measured via the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) colorimetric method to indicate lipid peroxidation levels. Transcriptome sequencing combined with qRT-PCR validation was employed to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in osmotic adaptation. Results showed that low salinity (1.0 mol/L NaCl) promoted growth, while higher concentrations (≥1.5 mol/L NaCl) inhibited it, accompanied by increased REC and decreased MDA, forming a distinctive high-permeability, low-lipid-peroxidation phenotype. A total of 3155 DEGs were detected, mainly associated with the HOG-MAPK cascade, glycerol biosynthesis, and ion transport pathways. Eight key HOG-MAPK genes and 21 glycerol metabolic genes were upregulated in a concentration-dependent manner, with the terminal kinase Hog1 coordinating transcription of downstream effectors governing glycerol synthesis and ion homeostasis. These findings demonstrate that A. westerdijkiae integrates de novo glycerol production and intracellular lipid remodeling via the HOG-MAPK pathway to achieve osmotic adaptation under hypersaline stress. This work identifies potential molecular targets for controlling toxigenic spoilage caused by this species in high-salt fermented foods. Full article

Background: Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread mycotoxin with well-established nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, and carcinogenic properties. Despite decades of research, the structure, thematic evolution, and emerging directions of the scientific literature on OTA toxicity remain incompletely mapped. Methods: A bibliometric analysis was conducted using 883 publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection (1965–2025). Bibliometrix, VOSviewer, and BibExcel were integrated within a comparative cross-software workflow to assess publication trends, collaboration networks, thematic evolution, and thematic research directions in in vitro and in vivo OTA toxicity studies, while enabling cross-validation of the main bibliometric outputs. Results: After normalisation, authors, journals, author keywords, and Keywords Plus showed strong cross-software agreement, whereas country and institution outputs retained software dependent differences related mainly to country aggregation and affiliation parsing. Publication output increased substantially over the analysed period, particularly during the most recent decade, reflecting the growing visibility of OTA research in food safety and toxicology. The field is highly collaborative and multidisciplinary. Oxidative stress-related terms were prominent in the keyword and thematic analyses and co-occurred with terminology related to apoptosis, DNA damage, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Thematic evolution analyses showed a transition from early studies focused on nephrotoxicity and animal models toward more recent investigations addressing molecular pathways, cellular responses, and microbiota host interactions. Comparatively less prominent or emerging bibliometric themes included the gut immune axis, co-exposure to multiple mycotoxins, and the broader representation of animal-health and productivity-related research. Conclusions: The bibliometric and science mapping analyses indicate that the literature on OTA toxicity has evolved from predominantly organ, and animal model-related research, toward increasing attention to molecular, cellular, intestinal, and microbiota-related topics. These patterns describe changes in the conceptual structure of the literature rather than direct evidence of biological causality. Comparatively, less prominent themes, including human-relevant models, combined exposure scenarios, and microbiome-related research, may warrant further investigation. Full article

Whole crop maize silage may represent a complementary feed material in waterfowl nutrition, but its hygienic quality and mycotoxin profile remain important safety considerations. This study evaluated the microbiological quality, occurrence, and concentrations of selected mycotoxins in non-inoculated whole crop maize silage under five treatments: untreated control (CON), urea-supplemented silage (UR), silage supplemented with full fat Hermetia illucens meal (HI), silage supplemented with full fat Tenebrio molitor meal (TM), and lauric acid-supplemented silage (LA). All the variants were prepared from freshly harvested chopped maize forage and ensiled for 8 weeks in three independent replicates per treatment. The silages were analyzed for microbiological indicators and for the occurrence of fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), total aflatoxins (ΣAFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEA), T2 toxin (T2), HT2 toxin (HT2) and deoxynivalenol (DON). The initial occurrence of the selected mycotoxins in the raw materials was also assessed. In the silages, FB1 and FB2 were detected only in CON and UR, whereas both the fumonisins remained below the limit of detection in HI, TM and LA. DON was detected in all the treatments; HI, TM and CON did not differ significantly and showed the highest concentrations, whereas LA and UR were significantly lower and also differed from each other, with the lowest concentration observed in UR. HT2 was detected in CON and in one TM sample, while T2, ΣAFs, OTA and ZEA remained below the limit of detection in all the silage treatments. No significant differences were observed among the treatments in total viable count, lactic acid bacteria, coliform bacteria or microscopic filamentous fungi, and all the monitored microbiological indicators remained at low levels. Overall, the tested additives did not produce a uniform reduction across the monitored mycotoxin profile. A lower fumonisin occurrence was observed in HI, TM and LA, which should be interpreted with caution given the limited replication, whereas DON remained present in all the treatments. Full article

The protective effects of herbal feed additives Withania somnifera, Silybum marianum, Centella asiatica, and silymarin (administered at feed levels of 4000 ppm, 5000 ppm, 4600 ppm, and 25,000 ppm, respectively) against the toxic effects of ochratoxin A (OTA) (administered at 2 ppm) were investigated in 48 New Zealand White rabbits (37 days old) over an 80-day experimental period. A decrease in body weight was seen in rabbits exposed to OTA alone, but that decrease was less pronounced in rabbits receiving herbal supplements. The most severe lesions in OTA-treated rabbits were found in the liver, kidneys and spleen, while milder lesions were seen in the heart, intestine and lungs. The intensity of macroscopic, histopathological and biochemical changes was highest in rabbits exposed to OTA alone, followed by rabbits additionally supplemented with herbal additives, as evidenced by histopathological findings and serum levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT). The most pronounced protective effects of the herbal additives were observed in the kidneys and liver. Oxidative stress was significantly increased in rabbits exposed to OTA alone, as evidenced by elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide (●NO), ascorbyl radicals (●Asc), protein oxidation (PO), procollagen type I alpha 1 (COL1A1), malondialdehyde (MDA), kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1), hydroxyproline (Hyp), advanced glycation end products (AEGs), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), catalase (CAT), and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), as well decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1) activities, while protective effects were seen for all herbal additives, and better expressed for Centella asiatica and Silybum marianum. Full article

Mycotoxin contamination of cereal-based pig feeds is a persistent threat to swine health and global pork safety. Pigs are uniquely susceptible to mycotoxicosis, and the principal toxins—aflatoxins (AFs), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FUMs), and ochratoxin A (OTA)—cause impaired growth, reproductive failure, hepato- and nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, and carry-over residues in edible tissue. Anti-mycotoxin feed additives, including mineral adsorbents, biotransforming agents, and multicomponent mycotoxin-detoxifying agents (MMDAs) combining clays, phytogenic antioxidants (curcumin, silymarin), and postbiotics (yeast cell wall, hydrolyzed yeast), constitute the primary mitigation strategy. Beyond animal health, these agents play underappreciated roles in both the circular economy (CE)—enabling safe valorization of by-product feed ingredients and reducing feed waste—and in the life cycle assessment (LCA) sustainability profile of pork production, where feed conversion ratio (FCR) drives 22–95% of greenhouse gas emissions. Field-based in vivo studies in sows and weaned piglets, integrating plasma oxidative stress biomarkers (TBARS, protein carbonyls, total antioxidant capacity) with performance and reproductive endpoints, provide the most comprehensive real-world evidence for MMDA efficacy to date. This review synthesizes mycotoxin toxicology, anti-mycotoxin agent mechanisms, clinical evidence, and the CE/LCA sustainability framework, proposing integrated mycotoxin management as a One Health imperative in modern swine production. Full article

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a widespread nephrotoxic mycotoxin that contaminates cereal grains and feed, posing serious threats to animal health and food safety. Although curcumin has been reported to exert protective biological activities, it remains unclear whether its protection against OTA-induced renal epithelial injury is mediated by broad transcriptomic reversal or by selective regulation of key survival pathways. This study investigated the protective effect of curcumin against OTA-induced apoptosis in porcine renal epithelial (PK-15) cells and explored the underlying molecular mechanism using transcriptome sequencing combined with molecular validation. PK-15 cells were treated with 8 μg/mL OTA (approximately 19.8 μmol/L), 10 μmol/L curcumin, or their combination. Cell viability, LDH release, apoptotic morphology, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and apoptosis rate were assessed by CCK-8, LDH assay, Hoechst 33342 staining, JC-1 staining, and flow cytometry. Transcriptome sequencing was performed to identify global gene expression changes and key signaling pathways, followed by qRT-PCR and Western blot validation of apoptosis-related factors and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. OTA markedly reduced cell viability, increased LDH release, induced nuclear condensation and apoptotic body formation, and decreased ΔΨm. Transcriptome analysis revealed that OTA caused extensive transcriptional dysregulation (11,707 differentially expressed genes), whereas curcumin selectively modulated 498 genes, of which 380 overlapped with OTA-responsive genes. KEGG enrichment identified the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway as a key regulatory target. At the mRNA level, OTA upregulated Bax and Caspase-3 and downregulated Bcl-2; corresponding changes were observed at the protein level, and curcumin reversed these effects. Furthermore, OTA reduced the mRNA levels of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR and the protein abundance of PI3K, p-AKT, and mTOR, whereas curcumin partially restored these changes. In conclusion, curcumin alleviates OTA-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in PK-15 cells mainly by restoring PI3K/AKT/mTOR-associated survival signaling and Bcl-2/Bax/Caspase-3 balance rather than by broadly reversing the entire transcriptomic disturbance. These findings provide mechanistic insight into curcumin-mediated protection against OTA-induced renal epithelial toxicity. Full article

Bee-collected pollen (BCP), due to its valuable nutrient content, is considered a natural food suitable for human consumption. On the other hand, it should be noted that the rich nutritional value of BCP is also relevant in the context of potential contamination with fungal secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins. In this study, a total of 26 pollen samples were collected from different locations in order to investigate the potential presence of mycotoxins. All BCP samples were obtained from beekeepers who produce pollen for further commercialization. The analyzed mycotoxins included ochratoxin A (OTA), aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin, HT-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol (DON), and fumonisins (FUMs), which were measured by direct competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The obtained results indicated the presence of at least three toxins in all samples. AFB1, OTA, and ZEN were detected above the limit of quantification (LOQ) in all samples, whereas T-2 and HT-2 were below the LOQ in five samples and DON in four samples. FUMs were below LOQ in all samples. Due to the significant content of AFB1 determined in all samples, there is a potential risk for future consumers, demanding constant monitoring as well as improvement of BCP production. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that can contaminate the feed of dairy animals and can be transferred into milk and dairy products. This study aims to assess the occurrence of major mycotoxins in 190 samples of milk-based infant foods commercially available in São Paulo, Brazil, and characterize the associated risks. Aflatoxins (AFs) M₁ (AFM₁), B₁ (AFB₁), B₂ (AFB₂), G₁ (AFG₁) and G₂ (AFG₂), fumonisins (FBs) B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), deoxynivalenol (DON), and T-2 toxin were analyzed using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC–MS/MS). Ninety-eight samples (51.6%) were contaminated with at least one mycotoxin, while the co-occurrence of two to four mycotoxins was observed in 32 samples (16.8%). ZEN was the most prevalent mycotoxin (60 samples; 32%), followed by FBs (FB₁ and FB₂) (42 samples; 22%), OTA (11 samples; 5.8%), DON (8 samples; 4.2%), and T-2 toxin (2 samples; 1.1%). AFs were quantified in only two samples (1.1%), one milk-based product containing 0.630 μg/kg of AFM₁ and one flavored milk powder with AFB₁ at 5.850 μg/kg. The analyzed flavored milk powder samples showed the highest maximum concentrations of DON, FBs, and OTA (165.5, 93.79, and 86.77 μg/kg, respectively), while unflavored milk powder contained the highest concentration of ZEN (17.40 μg/kg). Infant formula provided the highest estimated daily intake (EDI) value of DON (1.226 μg/kg bw/day) for infants aged ≤one year. Hazard quotient (HQ) values > 1 revealed a potential health concern for DON in only one sample of infant formula intended for infants up to six months of age. Margin of exposure (MoE) values for AFs and OTA were <10,000, emphasizing the need for continuous monitoring due to their potential toxic effects. These findings emphasize the need for stringent preventive measures and regulatory compliance to prevent mycotoxin contamination in milk-based infant foods in Brazil. Full article

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced primarily by molds of the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Penicillium. These widespread food and feed contaminants can cause significant risks to human and animal health. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of reference chromatographic methods (high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with either fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) or tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS)) with two commercially available rapid tests from two manufacturers. To that end, 90 randomly selected grain samples (barley n = 10, wheat n = 21, triticale n = 10, maize n = 49) collected in 2025 were analyzed for deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), and the sum of T-2 and HT-2 toxins. None of the samples exceeded the maximum levels established by the European Union (EU); however, widespread contamination with one or more mycotoxins was observed. Results showed that although rapid test strips offer advantages such as low cost, short analysis time, and operational simplicity, their considerably higher limits of detection and quantification values make them unsuitable for advanced laboratory analysis. Therefore, HPLC-FLD and HPLC-MS/MS remain the gold-standard methods for reliable, sensitive, and precise mycotoxin determination. Full article

The risk of exposure to mycotoxins in livestock farming is still poorly characterized, particularly in Italy where human biomonitoring data are scarce. Livestock farms represent a high-risk setting due to frequent handling of contaminated feed and dust-generating activities. This pilot study applied a human biomonitoring approach to assess internal exposure to multiple mycotoxins among pig farmers in Southern Italy. Urinary biomarkers of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), ochratoxin A (OTA), and fumonisin B1 (FB1), together with oxidative stress biomarkers (8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanine (8-oxoGua), 8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-oxodGuo), 8-oxo-7,8-dihydroguanosine (8-oxoGuo), 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NO₂Tyr), and 5-methylcytidine (5-MeCyt)), were measured in urine samples from 35 workers and 30 non-exposed controls. A sensitive and validated HPLC–MS/MS multi-mycotoxin method was developed and applied. Biomonitoring results were also discussed in relation to previous environmental monitoring. AFM1 emerged as the most frequently detected biomarker in the exposed group, with concentrations above the limit of detection (LOD) in 22.8% of samples; 11.4% exceeded the limit of quantification (LOQ). In contrast, only 10% of the control samples had values above the LOD and none exceeded the LOQ, suggesting a possible contribution linked to occupational tasks. This study provides original biomonitoring evidence of low-dose, mixed mycotoxin exposure among Italian swine farmers and highlights the value of integrating environmental and biological monitoring to improve occupational exposure assessment in livestock production systems. Full article

The common fig (Ficus carica L.) is susceptible to mycotoxin contamination, raising food safety concerns given the strict maximum levels for aflatoxins (AF) and ochratoxin A (OTA) established by Regulation (EU) 2023/915 for dried figs. We characterized the susceptibility of three commercially relevant cultivars from the Jerte Valley (‘Calabacita’, ‘Cuello Dama Blanco’, and ‘Granito’) to Aspergillus section Flavi colonization under controlled and orchard conditions. These findings were integrated with an industry surveillance dataset (2014–2023; 326 batches), with cultivar comparisons restricted to the comparable period 2020–2023 (184 batches), from a local fig-processing cooperative. Under controlled inoculation, ‘Calabacita’ consistently showed the highest internal colonization and proportion of figs colonized, whereas ‘Granito’ showed the lowest values. Sealing the ostiole reduced colonization across cultivars and abolished cultivar differences, thereby supporting the ostiole as the primary entry route. Fruit susceptibility increased with fruit size across all three cultivars. Dry conidial inoculation, emulating natural airborne spread, resulted in substantially higher colonization than inoculation with an aqueous conidial suspension, both in severity (100% vs. 3.7%) and incidence (100% vs. 7.3%). Orchard assays were consistent with the controlled inoculation results: ‘Calabacita’ showed higher section Flavi colonization than ‘Cuello Dama Blanco’ and ‘Granito’, which did not differ from each other. Fruit position did not affect colonization by section Flavi, but it significantly affected colonization by section Nigri, which was higher in dropped fruits across cultivars. AF-OTA co-occurrence was restricted to ‘Granito’ (3 batches; 2.6%) and was absent in ‘Calabacita’. Surveillance data (2020–2023) were consistent with the experimental findings. ‘Calabacita’ showed predominantly AF-related non-compliance (with AFB₁ and AFTA exceedances reaching 25.7%), whereas ‘Granito’ showed higher OTA exceedance (10.5% vs. 1.4%), reflecting distinct contamination profiles between cultivars. This study informs AF and OTA management strategies in dried figs based on cultivar susceptibility profiling, prescreening systems prior to commercialization, and reduction in fruit–soil contact during drying. Full article

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a prevalent foodborne mycotoxin that has been increasingly recognized as a potential environmental contributor to neurodegenerative diseases. Despite extensive research, a systematic integration of how OTA replicates the specific pathological hallmarks of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) is currently lacking. This study provides a comprehensive systematic review of the mechanistic evidence linking OTA exposure to AD-related pathways, utilizing the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) framework to categorize complex toxicological data into biological key events (KEs). A systematic literature search was conducted across PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. A total of 24 peer-reviewed articles were selected for synthesis, comprising 14 in vitro studies and 10 in vivo investigations. The integrated evidence demonstrates that OTA exposure triggers a robust toxicological cascade that replicates several key mechanistic pathways associated with AD in experimental models. Early molecular triggers involve significant redox imbalance and mitochondrial bioenergetic failure, which serve as catalysts for sustained neuroinflammation and microglial activation. In vivo data, from multiple animal models, consistently show that these cellular dysfunctions culminate in structural damage. This systematic integration provides a clearer roadmap for future risk assessment and emphasizes the urgent need for refined regulatory guidelines to protect neurological health from chronic mycotoxin exposure. Full article

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic metabolite produced by fungi, that can be present on various food products, cereals and plant-derived (raw) feed (materials). It was demonstrated that OTA has toxic effects after consumption by both animals and humans. Therefore, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) concluded that contribution to human exposure of OTA from (processed) meats should not be ignored. The objective of this study was to assess the occurrence of OTA; thus, data on OTA in cured meats were collected. An in-house validated analytical method using methanol extraction, clean-up with an immunoaffinity columns and LC-MS/MS detection was applied. Quantification was done through the external calibration of standards in solvent using ¹³C₂₀ OTA internal standard, with a reporting limit of 0.2 µg/kg and LOQ of 0.04 µg/kg. A total of 50 cured meat products were obtained from Dutch supermarkets. OTA was detected at or above the reporting limit in four samples of cured ham (range 0.30 µg/kg to 79.8 µg/kg) and two samples of sausages (0.2 µg/kg and 0.41 µg/kg). Overall, OTA was detected in twenty samples, and it was concluded that OTA occurred above the LOQ in 40% of cured meats analyzed. Full article