Search Results (846)

The modern agricultural sector faces a multidimensional crisis, mainly consisting of an aging workforce, labor shortages, exhausting working conditions, and high rates of work-related accidents. In response, the authors carried out a systematic literature review (SLR), to explore the latest research on smart agricultural technologies, their effects on occupational safety, ergonomics, and worker health, and pinpoint obstacles to sustainable adoption. A thorough search was performed solely in the Scopus database, covering peer-reviewed publications from 2020 to 2026, strictly following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Based solely on Scopus, this study provides a focused synthesis, with the results suggesting that hazards such as chemical exposure and musculoskeletal strain are significantly reduced with the use of innovations such as unmanned vehicles, exoskeletons, and collaborative robots. These technologies also show great promise in cutting down resource waste, helping farmers practice sustainable agriculture. However, a recurring gap between research and real-life deployment exists, as adoption is hindered by cost considerations, reliability issues, and ergonomic problems. To achieve a sustainable technological transition in agriculture, it is necessary to simultaneously bridge three critical gaps: technological (ensuring robust field performance), ergonomic (design and testing processes based on real end-users and their needs), and socio-economic (addressing adoption barriers). Full article

Lardizabala biternata is an endemic vine and the sole species of the monotypic genus Lardizabala, distributed across central–southern Chile and producing edible fruits traditionally harvested from wild populations. Despite its cultural relevance, potential agronomic value, and evolutionary singularity, its conservation status remains poorly understood because of incomplete distributional knowledge and historical nomenclatural inconsistencies. Here, we conducted a preliminary record-based spatial conservation assessment of L. biternata using a taxonomically and geographically curated occurrence database integrated with Kernel Density Estimation (KDE), Extent of Occurrence (EOO), Area of Occupancy (AOO), overlap analyses with Chile’s protected-area network (SNASPE) and the Chilean Winter Rainfall–Valdivian Forests biodiversity hotspot, and ecological representativeness assessments based on mapped vegetation-class units. Our analyses revealed substantial spatial and ecological conservation gaps. Most documented occurrence records were located outside protected areas, while KDE-derived occurrence-record density patterns were concentrated within the biodiversity hotspot, a region characterized by high endemism and intense anthropogenic pressure. Although EOO indicated a relatively broad geographic extent, AOO indicated restricted occupancy based on documented records. In addition, several mapped vegetation-class units intersecting the 95% KDE-derived occurrence-record density area lacked formal conservation coverage entirely. Together, these findings suggest that L. biternata may warrant greater conservation attention than previously recognized. This study provides the first integrated record-based spatial conservation assessment of the species and establishes a baseline framework for future conservation evaluations, ecological studies, and ex situ conservation strategies. Full article

This study investigated the complex interfaces between knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP); biomechanical risks; and musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) among heavy manual handling workers. A cross-sectional study surveyed 99 industrial manual lifting workers within manufacturing factories (mean age: 33.4 ± 7.7 years; mean job experience: 7.95 ± 6.5 years) using a validated online questionnaire assessing demographics, occupational conditions, biomechanical risk, lifting KAP, and MSD prevalence via the Extended Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire. Associations with 12-month and active 7-day MSD prevalence were analyzed using multinomial logistic regression. The 12-month prevalence of MSDs was 56.6%, predominantly affecting the lower back (51.0%). The MSD group reported significantly higher biomechanical risks. Chi-square analysis revealed significant differences in safety practices (p = 0.025), particularly regarding pre-work stretching, load-weight assessment, and overhead lifting. Higher biomechanical risk was significantly associated with 12-month MSDs without 7-day pain (RRR = 1.54, 95% CI: 1.10 to 2.16, p = 0.012). Conversely, greater knowledge demonstrated a significant protective association against 12-month MSDs without 7-day pain (RRR = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.56 to 0.99, p = 0.045). Age-related vulnerability significantly increased active 7-day MSDs. MSD prevalence is driven by cumulative biomechanical hazards. Although knowledge is associated with lower long-term risk, a critical knowledge-to-practice gap exists. Interventions must prioritize workplace ergonomic risk reduction with age-tailored adjustments. These should be integrated with active, practice-based training to foster behavioral modification. Full article

Occupancy detection is fundamental to the operational intelligence of smart buildings, driving critical functions in energy management, HVAC automation, and physical security. While modern Deep Learning (DL) models have achieved high accuracy in parsing complex environmental sensor data, they remain highly vulnerable to adversarial examples, imperceptibly perturbed inputs designed to deceive neural networks. These vulnerabilities pose severe real-world risks, ranging from energy sabotage, in which systems heat empty rooms, to critical security breaches in which intruders go undetected. To address this security gap, we propose ADS-Guard, a novel Adversarial Detection and Sanitization (ADS) framework rooted in sequence-to-sequence autoencoder purification. Unlike standard denoising techniques, ADS-Guard incorporates a latent consistency regularization mechanism that encourages alignment between clean and adversarial representations in the latent feature space. We evaluated ADS-Guard using a comprehensive experimental pipeline comprising five distinct DL architectures (LSTM, GRU, 1D-CNN, MLP, and Transformer) across three diverse datasets: (1) The UCI Occupancy dataset (20,699 samples) for standard binary detection; (2) Building59 dataset (7200 samples) for three-class occupancy-level classification (Low, Medium, High); and (3) Room Occupancy dataset (10,129 samples), representing a highly imbalanced binary occupancy-detection task. We evaluate ADS-Guard against both Fast Gradient Sign Method (FGSM) and Projected Gradient Descent (PGD) attacks across diverse occupancy datasets and model architectures. We further assess the framework under adaptive white-box attacks and compare its performance with FGSM-based and PGD-based adversarial training baselines. Our results demonstrate that adversarial attacks can substantially degrade occupancy-detection performance across datasets and model architectures. ADS-Guard consistently improves robustness relative to undefended models against both FGSM and PGD attacks, recovering a substantial portion of the lost performance in binary occupancy tasks and providing meaningful gains in the more challenging multi-class setting. Furthermore, ADS-Guard remains effective under stronger adaptive threat models while providing a practical retraining-free defense that can be integrated with existing occupancy-detection systems without modifying downstream classifiers. Full article

The rapid global expansion of data center infrastructure has prompted substantial clean technology research on energy, water, and carbon impacts, while the acoustic health dimension of these facilities remains virtually unstudied. Existing occupational and environmental noise assessments rely on A-weighted (dBA) metrics, which apply more than 26 decibels (dB) of attenuation at 63 hertz (Hz) and exceed 50 dB at infrasound frequencies, sharply discounting their sensitivity to infrasound and low-frequency noise (ILFN) generated by data center cooling fans, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, backup generators, and power transformers. This narrative review synthesizes evidence from established ILFN health research alongside the emerging data center acoustics literature, identifying a consequential gap: no published study has measured the ILFN spectrum of an operational data center, nor examined health outcomes in workers or surrounding communities with respect to sub-audible acoustic exposure. Evidence from wind turbine, industrial, and laboratory contexts documents non-auditory ILFN pathways, including sleep disturbance, cardiovascular stress responses, cognitive impairment, and audiovestibular symptoms—effects that operate below the auditory threshold and are substantially undercounted by standard dBA monitoring. A prioritized research agenda is proposed, beginning with G-weighted and flat-response ILFN characterization of operational data centers across at least 1–200 Hz—a prerequisite for evidence-based acoustic design standards and health-protective infrastructure development consistent with clean technology principles. Full article

Structural health monitoring and regular damage inspection are critical to ensure the operational safety of civil infrastructure and reduce life-cycle maintenance costs, while traditional manual inspection suffers from low efficiency, high subjectivity, and occupational safety risks for inspectors in hard-to-reach areas. Although existing reviews have explored image-based damage detection, most focus on single damage types or individual infrastructure categories, with few providing quantitative bibliometric mapping of the whole field. This study combines bibliometric analysis and systematic review to trace the development trajectory, identify unresolved technical bottlenecks and industry–academia gaps, and provide a structured reference for researchers and engineering practitioners. Following PRISMA guidelines, 171 peer-reviewed publications from the Web of Science Core Collection (2009–2025) were included after two rounds of screening (initial retrieval: 892 records). CiteSpace and VOSviewer were jointly used to analyze publication trends, institutional cooperation networks, and emerging research hotspots, followed by a systematic review of technical evolution and engineering applications. Results show that annual publications have maintained a growth rate of over 40% since 2019, with China (54.4%) and the United States (22.2%) as the core global contributors; 89.5% of research outputs come from universities and research institutes, while enterprise participation accounts for only 8.3%, indicating a clear technology translation gap. Technically, the field has evolved from traditional digital image processing to deep learning paradigms (CNN, YOLO, U-Net, GAN, Transformer), integrated with UAV platforms and 3D reconstruction to achieve both intelligent damage identification and 3D quantitative assessment. Key bottlenecks include scarcity of high-quality multi-class annotated datasets, poor model robustness in complex field environments, insufficient pixel-to-engineering scale conversion accuracy, and low model interpretability. Future directions include multimodal sensor fusion, unsupervised domain adaptation for real-world generalization, lightweight edge-deployable detection models, strengthened industry–academia collaboration, and explainable artificial intelligence to accelerate technology deployment in engineering practice. Full article

In manufacturing enterprises, work safety assessments mostly focus on technical requirements and regulatory compliance, whereas the influence of workplace environmental quality is still not adequately addressed. To bridge this gap, this paper develops a novel approach to work safety analysis that incorporates both quantitative and qualitative parameters characterizing the working environment of employees involved in machining processes. This framework consists of: (1) a description of the workstation, (2) a set of quantitative and qualitative indicators characterizing the working environment of employees involved in machining processes, and (3) the Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process (FAHP) method. Overall, the developed analytical framework consists of eight quantitative parameters representing workplace environmental values specified in legal regulations, and eight qualitative parameters reflecting selected aspects of environmental quality and work comfort. The results of the FAHP analysis revealed that the sense of security in the use of machinery and equipment and the level of concentration/distraction were identified as the most significant qualitative factors influencing work safety among employees engaged in machining processes. Next, the findings of our study enabled the development of a new method, namely occupational safety index (OSI). Finally our paper introduces the main challenges and directions: (1) monitor a continuous change as new technologies are introduced and implemented in machining process, (2) asses and analyse the necessary competencies to ensure the safe operation of modern technological systems, (3) and incorporate the ongoing monitoring and regular updating of work safety assessment results into the organization’s strategic management framework. Full article

Staphylococcus aureus is one of the leading causes of both community- and healthcare-associated infections. Nasal colonization constitutes the primary reservoir for subsequent infection and transmission, while methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) remains a major public health concern because of its resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents. However, data regarding community nasal colonization in rural Portuguese populations remain scarce. The BI-STAPH Project was established to address this knowledge gap through systematic surveillance of rural communities in inland Portugal. To estimate the prevalence of presumptive nasal colonization by Staphylococcus aureus and MRSA among adults living in the municipality of Fundão, Portugal, and to explore potential associations between colonization and demographic, behavioural, occupational, and environmental characteristics. A prospective community-based cross-sectional study was conducted as the second phase of the BI-STAPH Project. A total of 200 adults were recruited from different parishes of the municipality of Fundão. Bilateral nasal swabs were collected and processed using standardized microbiological methods for the presumptive identification of S. aureus. Presumptive MRSA isolates were investigated using a PBP2′ latex agglutination assay. Sociodemographic and exposure-related information was obtained through structured questionnaires. Associations between presumptive colonization and participant characteristics were evaluated using Pearson’s chi-square or Fisher’s exact tests, as appropriate. Presumptive S. aureus nasal colonization was identified in 56 of 200 participants, corresponding to a prevalence of 28.0% (95% CI: 21.8–34.2%). No presumptive MRSA-positive isolates were identified, corresponding to an observed prevalence of 0% (95% CI: 0.0–1.8%). Colonization prevalence was 29.5% among females and 26.8% among males, and ranged from 25.8% to 31.1% across age groups; neither sex nor age was significantly associated with colonization. Participants reporting daily animal contact had a colonization prevalence of 32.3%, compared with 20.5% among those without animal contact, but this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.075). Overall, no statistically significant associations were identified between presumptive S. aureus colonization and the demographic, behavioural, occupational, or environmental variables evaluated. Presumptive S. aureus nasal colonization was common among adults living in the rural municipality of Fundão, Portugal, whereas no presumptive MRSA-positive isolates were identified in this study population. No statistically significant associations were observed between colonization and the characteristics evaluated. These findings expand the epidemiological evidence generated by the BI-STAPH Project and support continued community-based surveillance of S. aureus in rural Portugal. Future multicentre studies incorporating molecular confirmation, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, and larger populations will be important to better characterize circulating strains and transmission patterns within a One Health framework. Full article

Personal protective equipment, workspaces and safety systems are engineered around assumptions about the bodies and behaviour of their users. In the maritime workforce those assumptions have historically been male: women make up fewer than two per cent of the world’s 1.9 million seafarers, and the shipboard environment they work in, including its protective equipment, machinery, accommodation and emergency systems, was overwhelmingly designed for a male population. This paper treats the resulting disadvantages as an applied human-factors and occupational-safety problem, asking how a male-default design baseline translates into measurable safety, health and equipment gaps, and how engineering methods can close them. Following the PRISMA 2020 guideline, we searched Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed, screened 516 records, and synthesised 50 sources. Five engineering-relevant clusters emerged: (i) protective equipment sized to male anthropometry; (ii) workspace and accommodation design that embeds gendered reach, force and privacy penalties; (iii) a high and persistent burden of harassment, bullying and sexual misconduct, with reported prevalence exceeding 50 per cent among women; (iv) under-addressed occupational and reproductive-health exposures; and (v) weak, non-anonymous reporting and redress systems. Across clusters the evidence is dominated by qualitative and survey research with heterogeneous, non-standardised definitions and almost no engineering-grade quantification of risk. We argue that several of these gaps are tractable design problems, namely anthropometry-driven protective-equipment specification, inclusive ergonomic standards in equipment and safety-system design, and tamper-evident digital reporting tools, and we set out a structured, engineering-oriented research agenda. Framed as an applied human-factors and safety-engineering question rather than solely a policy concern, accommodating the full user population emerges as a precondition for a safe, inclusive and resilient workforce. Full article

Courtyards and biophilic design have each been associated with improved environmental performance, occupant well-being, and architectural quality. However, their integration has received limited scholarly attention, and no comprehensive assessment framework currently exists to evaluate their combined contribution to sustainable architecture. This study addresses this gap by proposing a conceptual assessment framework based on the Integrated Value Model for Sustainability Assessment (MIVES). The framework draws on the literature from courtyard architecture, biophilic design, environmental psychology, and multi-criteria decision analysis. It adopts a hierarchical structure comprising requirements, criteria, and indicators related to environmental sustainability, biophilic quality, human well-being, and functional resilience. The framework also incorporates preliminary weighting strategies and value-function concepts to support the integration of diverse performance dimensions within a unified assessment structure. Rather than providing a validated assessment tool, the proposed framework establishes a conceptual foundation for future empirical calibration and testing while supporting more holistic evaluation of courtyard–biophilic integration across diverse climatic and cultural contexts. Full article

Background and Objectives: Advances in medical, surgical, and acute burn care have shifted burn care from survival alone to survivorship; such improvement can be accompanied by extensive morbidity and disability in chronicity not previously encountered. The epidemiological characteristics of patients treated at a burn rehabilitation center, in the context of evolving social and occupational environments, may provide insights into current trends and their clinical implications. Notably, updated epidemiological data reflecting these changes in burn injury patterns remain scarce worldwide. To date, no epidemiological data from a burn rehabilitation center have been reported in Taiwan. Therefore, this study aimed to bridge this gap by providing a recent epidemiological review from the perspective of a burn rehabilitation center. Materials and Methods: This is a single-center, retrospective cross-sectional study enrolling patients who sustained burn injuries between January 2016 and December 2023. Data were collected from medical records and analyzed using SPSS version 20.0. Results: A total of 143 patients were recruited, of whom 101 were male (70.6%). The mean age was 38.51 years (SD = 20.28), and the mean total body surface area (TBSA) burned was 20.83% (SD = 18.77). Flame burns were the most common etiology, accounting for 67 cases (46.9%). Among the 143 patients, 73 (51.0%) sustained work-related burns, which were associated with a higher incidence of eye involvement compared with non-work-related burns (28.8% vs. 14.3%, p = 0.036). The upper extremity was the most frequently involved anatomical site, affecting 98 patients (68.5%). Conclusions: The present findings highlight an underrecognized need for stronger safety measures that address both personal and environmental risk factors. Risk-reduction strategies should particularly account for the aging workforce and vulnerable anatomical sites to mitigate preventable human and economic losses. Full article

Background/Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate radiation safety knowledge, perceptions, and self-reported protective practices among healthcare workers (HCWs) working in radiology and nuclear medicine departments, with particular attention to occupational dose limits, radiation protection principles, dosimetry, and personal protective equipment use. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 138 HCWs (25 specialist doctors, 101 technicians, 9 nurses and 3 radiophysicists) in radiology and nuclear medicine departments from May to June 2024. Data were collected using a structured 31-item survey assessing sociodemographic characteristics, perceived radiation exposure risk, knowledge of radiation protection principles and occupational dose limits, dosimeter use, personal protective equipment use, and awareness of institutional radiation safety procedures. The total knowledge score was calculated by summing correct responses to knowledge items (range: 0–10) and analyzed as a continuous outcome using multivariable linear regression with HC3 robust standard error. Because of the small and uneven distribution of some subgroups, item-level subgroup comparisons were interpreted descriptively and cautiously. Results: Although most HCWs reported receiving radiation safety information through formal education or institutional training, important knowledge and self-reported practice gaps remained. While 96.4% perceived themselves to be at high risk of radiation exposure, 61.6% reported not using any PPE in routine practice and 21.0% reported not using a dosimeter. Only 13.8% correctly identified the 5-year average permissible occupational dose, whereas 32.6% correctly identified the annual maximum dose limit. Knowledge of ionizing-radiation methods was higher among postgraduates than undergraduates (100% vs. 27.5%, p < 0.001) and among nuclear medicine staff than radiology staff (100% vs. 37.8%, p < 0.001). Knowledge of all three basic radiation protection methods was also higher among postgraduates than undergraduates (100% vs. 15.6%, p < 0.001). Because some subgroup distributions were small and uneven, these item-level subgroup findings should be interpreted descriptively and with appropriate caution. In multivariable linear regression with HC3 robust standard errors, technicians (B = −3.09, 95% CI = −3.52 to −2.67, p < 0.001) and nurses (B = −3.84, 95% CI = −5.26 to −2.43, p < 0.001) had lower total knowledge scores than specialist doctors. Nuclear medicine was associated with a higher total score than radiology (B = 2.33, 95% CI = 0.81 to 3.85, p = 0.003), whereas >3 years of work experience was associated with a lower score than ≤3 years (B = −1.53, 95% CI = −2.40 to −0.66, p = 0.001). When postgraduate education was evaluated instead of professional role because of collinearity, postgraduate education was associated with a higher total knowledge score. Because of the cross-sectional design, these associations should not be interpreted as causal. The internal consistency of the knowledge subscale was minimally acceptable (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.694). Conclusions: Significant gaps and variations were observed in radiation safety knowledge and self-reported practices among HCWs. These patterns differed according to educational level, professional role, departmental affiliation, and experience; however, they should be interpreted in light of the cross-sectional design and the small and uneven distribution of some subgroups. These findings identify potential areas for future institutional quality-improvement efforts, including targeted education programs and review of radiation safety policies, whose effectiveness should be evaluated in future studies. Full article

The global surge in industrial waste generation has raised substantial concerns regarding occupational exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and the associated adverse health effects. However, critical knowledge gaps remain regarding the relationships among size-resolved airborne particulate matter (PM)-bound PFASs, internal exposure, and early-stage health damage. We conducted a panel study at a waste recycling plant in southern China, collecting 15 size-resolved PM samples and 280 repeated first morning void urine samples from 20 workers over 45 consecutive days. Relationship between size-resolved PM-bound PFASs, internal exposure, and oxidative stress biomarkers (OSBs:8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), malondialdehyde (MDA)) were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models. Our results indicate that short-chain PFASs predominated in both matrices. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for urinary short-chain PFASs ranged from fair to excellent (ICC > 0.4). Notably, inhalation of PFASs in PM_2.1–10 correlate more strongly with internal exposure than those in PM_2.1. For the first time, we observed suggestive quantitative associations between OSBs and multiple short-chain PFASs in urine. More importantly, 8-OHdG levels were mainly correlated with PFASs in PM_4.7–5.8 and PM_9.0–10, with each unit increase in ln-transformed average daily intake (ADI) associated with a 10.2–12.6% increase in urinary 8-OHdG levels (p < 0.05). Similarly, MDA levels were primarily associated with PFASs bound to PM_5.8–9.0, with each unit increase in ln-transformed ADI corresponding to an 8.0–14.6% increase in MDA (p < 0.05). These findings are exploratory and warrant further confirmation in independent cohorts. Nevertheless, this study highlights the need for more exposure monitoring and health impact assessments regarding PM_2.1–10-bound short-chain PFASs among the occupational population. Full article

Background/Objectives: Burnout among healthcare professionals has emerged as a major occupational and organizational challenge with important implications for workforce sustainability, patient safety, and healthcare system performance. Although the scientific literature on burnout has expanded substantially, an integrated understanding of its global development, research structure, and scientific impact remains limited. This study aimed to examine the evolution, thematic development, and citation dynamics of burnout research among healthcare professionals through an integrated bibliometric approach combining science mapping, multilevel citation modelling, and critical literature synthesis. Methods: A bibliometric analysis was conducted using publications indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection between 1987 and 2024. Science mapping techniques were applied using Bibliometrix and VOSviewer to evaluate publication trends, collaboration networks, thematic development, and citation patterns. In addition, a multilevel negative binomial regression model was used to identify publication characteristics associated with citation impact. Results: A total of 1232 publications were included in the analysis. Scientific production increased markedly after 2020, temporally coinciding with the COVID-19 pandemic and growing scientific interest in healthcare workforce wellbeing. Research output was concentrated in high-income countries, particularly the United States, China, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia. Physicians and nurses dominated the literature, while non-clinical healthcare workers remained underrepresented. The thematic analysis indicated an increasing emphasis on organizational and system-level determinants of burnout alongside the continued presence of individual-centered perspectives. The multilevel negative binomial model identified longer title length and a greater number of author-provided keywords as being associated with lower expected citation counts, whereas a greater number of Keywords Plus terms was associated with higher expected citation counts. Conclusions: Burnout research has evolved into a rapidly expanding and increasingly interdisciplinary field. However, important gaps persist regarding geographic representation, workforce diversity, methodological standardization, and organizational intervention research. Future studies should move beyond descriptive approaches and further evaluate organizational interventions and workforce-related strategies to strengthen the evidence base that may inform healthcare policy and organizational practice. Full article

Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), utilising chemistries based on Nickel Manganese Cobalt (NMC) containing lithium-ion devices, often present fire safety hazards that existing qualitative risk frameworks, including NFPA 855’s 5 × 5 consequence-likelihood matrix, are insufficiently granular to quantify. This paper presents an original probabilistic risk assessment (PRA) of fire hazards associated with BESS for a 485.52 kWh NMC installation at the Equinix SG4-4A data centre in Singapore, using Monte Carlo simulation (N = 10,000 iterations) to characterise uncertainty in hydrogen fluoride (HF) gas dose, time to Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH) concentration, cabinet-to-cabinet propagation probability, and suppression effectiveness. The HF yield is modelled as a triangular distribution (0.3–0.8 g/kWh, mode 0.5 g/kWh), ventilation activation delay as log-normal (median 90 s), and suppression effectiveness as a piecewise function of water application delay. The results demonstrated that HF dose exceeded the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) IDLH of 25 mg/m³ in 100% of simulated scenarios for both single- and two-compartment designs, thus confirming that threshold HF toxicity was essentially unavoidable for any occupant present during a full thermal runaway event, and that ventilation alone cannot achieve adequate risk reduction. The single-stage suppression effectiveness was found to be only 37.9% (mean), providing quantitative confirmation that two-stage (clean agent + water) suppression is warranted for NMC chemistry. The two-compartment design was found to reduce the peak HF dose by 50%, and also reduced the mean IDLH clearance time from 599 to 301 min, thus shifting residual risk from As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP)-tolerable to broadly acceptable under UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE) criteria. The paper proposes a quantitative PRA framework as a complement to NFPA 855 Chapter 5’s qualitative Hazard Mitigation Analysis, enabling more informed engineering decisions for BESS fire safety. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to apply Monte Carlo simulation to HF dose modelling in a tropical data-centre BESS context and thereby address a documented gap in the literature. Full article