Search Results (677)

Nanoplastics (NPs) and heavy metal cadmium (Cd) are common co-existing pollutants in freshwater environments, but their combined toxic effects on the liver of herbivorous economic fish remain unclear. In this study, grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were exposed to polystyrene nanoplastics (PS-NPs, 100 nm) and/or Cd to investigate their individual and combined effects on hepatic toxicity. The results revealed that co-exposure interactively suppressed interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) antioxidant response, and induced more severe hepatic necrosis, melanization, and fibrinoid necrosis, with the highest integrated biomarker response index and extensive disruption of lipid and steroid metabolism pathways. This study clarified the toxicological interaction of NPs and Cd on the liver of grass carp, and provided a theoretical basis for understanding the combined toxicity of NPs and heavy metal pollution in extreme contamination scenarios or accidental pollution events. Full article

Micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging global pollutants that pose a significant threat to living organisms due to their widespread presence, ingestion by aquatic species, and ability to cross biological barriers, including the blood–brain barrier. Zebrafish is a well-established and convenient model for ecotoxicological research because of its small size, optical transparency, fully sequenced genome, high genetic homology to humans, ease of breeding, and short life cycle. Exposure to MNPs affects multiple organ systems in zebrafish, including the brain, eyes, liver, intestine, gills, and reproductive system. These particles can induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and interference with diverse biomolecules, leading to adverse biological effects. An analysis of transcriptomic alterations induced by MNPs exposure can contribute to understanding the mechanisms of these adverse effects. In this narrative review, we classify existing studies on MNPs exposure in zebrafish by affected organ system and summarize the gene expression-based evidence of MNP-induced toxicity with a particular focus on high-throughput approaches such as RNA sequencing and single-cell RNA sequencing. Full article

The extensive use of plastics in everyday life has exerted a significant influence on the environment, with the release of micro- and nanoplastics posing even greater ecological threats. Plastic contamination, particularly in these smaller forms, has emerged as a pressing environmental concern due to its persistence, bioaccumulation, and potential hazards. Traditional treatment systems are generally ineffective at removing such micro- and nano-scale complex pollutants. Recently, micro- and nanofiber-based materials have emerged as promising candidates due to their large surface area, porous structure, and adjustable functionality, enabling efficient adsorption, filtration, and photocatalytic degradation. The term micro/nanofibers in this study encompasses both electrospun nanofibrous membranes and nanofiber-based functional layers or additives incorporated into pre-existing membrane structures for performance enhancement. The incorporation of photocatalysts enables these materials to promote photocatalytic oxidation, degrading plastics into smaller, less toxic compounds. This paper outlines recent progress in developing micro- and nanofiber systems for environmental remediation, highlighting their design approaches, removal mechanisms, and multifunctional capabilities. Ultimately, the discussion explores emerging directions, existing limitations, and future opportunities, highlighting how these advanced materials can contribute to sustainable and efficient pollution control strategies. Full article

Global plastic production has led to widespread contamination by micro- and nanoplastics, with polystyrene nanoplastics (PSNPs) increasingly being detected in human biological samples, including blood and cardiac tissue. Given the critical role of mitochondria in cardiac energy metabolism, this study investigated whether 100 nm PSNPs interact with mitochondria and affect mitochondrial function in H9c2 cardiomyoblasts. Cellular uptake and intracellular distribution were examined, followed by an evaluation of mitochondrial ultrastructure, intracellular and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, mitochondrial membrane potential, mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy-related gene expression, mitochondrial DNA copy number, and metabolic function. PSNPs were internalized but did not directly localize to mitochondria within 24 h. No significant cytotoxicity, increase in intracellular or mitochondrial ROS production, or alteration in basal metabolic activity was observed. However, PSNP exposure resulted in intracellular accumulation, an altered mitochondrial ultrastructure characterized by crista loosening and vacuole-like structural changes. These changes were accompanied by reduced mitochondrial membrane potential; the upregulation of mitochondrial dynamics-related genes, including optic atrophy 1 (Opa1) and dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1); the suppression of PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1)/Parkin RBR E3 ubiquitin protein ligase (Parkin)-mediated mitophagy-related genes; and decreased maximal respiratory capacity. Lactate production and the extracellular acidification rate remained unchanged, suggesting that compensatory glycolysis was not activated. These findings indicate that PSNP exposure induces early mitochondrial structural and functional alterations without substantial cell damage, suggesting a potential reduction in cardiac adaptive capacity under PSNP-induced stress conditions. Full article

Polystyrene nanoplastic (PS-NP) contamination poses an emerging threat to aquaculture species, yet time-resolved assessments integrating host physiology, gut microbial ecology, and tissue bioaccumulation remain limited. Here, we evaluated the temporal effects of 100 mg/L PS-NPs (100 nm) on Cherax quadricarinatus (Von Martens, 1868) over a 3-week exposure period. Crayfish were assigned to a control group (Group A) and three treatment groups exposed for 1 (Group B), 2 (Group C), or 3 (Group D) weeks. No mortality occurred. Hepatopancreatic antioxidant enzyme activities (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) displayed a hormetic response (upregulation at weeks 1–2 followed by depletion at week 3), indicating oxidative stress overload. Alkaline phosphatase activity declined progressively, reflecting cumulative immunosuppression. Histological examination revealed time-dependent structural damage in the hepatopancreas: hepatic tubule enlargement, increased vacuolation, B cell hypertrophy, and cellular disorganization/lysis after three weeks. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that PS-NPs induced time-dependent gut dysbiosis, characterized by depletion of beneficial taxa and enrichment of opportunistic pathogens. Alpha-diversity metrics (ACE, Chao1, Shannon) were significantly reduced in Group D compared to controls, confirming loss of microbial evenness and richness. Pyrolysis gas chromatography–mass spectrometry quantification demonstrated marked PS-NP bioaccumulation in the hepatopancreas, with concentrations rising from 6.94 μg/g in controls to 65.38 μg/g in Group D, a 9.4-fold increase. Collectively, prolonged PS-NP exposure is associated with oxidative stress, immune dysfunction, progressive gut dysbiosis, and substantial hepatopancreatic nanoplastic burden in C. quadricarinatus. These findings carry implications for ecological risk assessment and highlight the need for further investigation into food safety risks associated with human consumption of crayfish from PS-NP-contaminated environments. Full article

Mastitis remains the most economically damaging disease of dairy production, and recent molecular work has converged on the NLRP3 inflammasome as a key integrative node of its pathogenesis. This narrative review integrates evidence published largely between 2015 and 2026 to show how diverse triggers—Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoteichoic acid (LTA), non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA), heat stress, environmental xenobiotics including nanoplastics, and microbiota-derived signals—may funnel into a common NLRP3–ASC–caspase-1–GSDMD axis that drives pyroptosis, blood–milk barrier disruption, and clinical disease. The review examines the potential obligatory role of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial dysfunction, and selenoprotein-mediated redox control in licensing inflammasome assembly. It further evaluates the emerging gut–mammary and rumen–mammary axes that operate upstream of local epithelial activation. We survey a structurally diverse therapeutic landscape encompassing dietary selenium, probiotics, microbial metabolites, plant-derived nanovesicles, polyphenols, ginsenosides, and small-molecule NLRP3 antagonists, identifying recurring mechanistic motifs that suggest combinatorial regimens may yield additive benefit. Importantly, much of the evidence derives from in vitro and murine models, and we highlight the translational gaps that must be bridged before clinical application in dairy cattle. Finally, we map outstanding research gaps and propose priorities for translational work aimed at sustainable, antibiotic-sparing management of bovine mastitis. Full article

Micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants increasingly detected in air, food, drinking water, and human tissues, raising concerns about their potential long-term health effects. Accumulating evidence indicates that these particles can enter the human body, cross biological barriers, and elicit cellular and molecular responses relevant to disease development. This review synthesizes current mechanistic evidence linking MP/NP exposure to cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer, two leading global causes of morbidity and mortality that share interconnected pathogenic pathways. Key mechanisms include chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, gut microbiota dysbiosis, genotoxicity, and epigenetic alterations, all of which are widely implicated in both conditions. However, the available evidence is still largely derived from in vitro and animal studies, with limited human epidemiological data. Important uncertainties remain regarding real-world exposure characterization, dose–response relationships, and long-term clinical outcomes, underscoring the need for standardized analytical approaches, validated exposure and effect biomarkers, and large-scale longitudinal studies to clarify causal associations for both cancer and CVD. Taken together, current evidence suggests that MPs/NPs may represent emerging environmental contributors to shared pathogenic pathways linking CVD and cancer; however, establishing causality in humans will require well-designed longitudinal studies that integrate exposure assessment and clinical outcomes. Full article

The plastic pieces of synthetic polymers, which were previously regarded as primary pollutants of the environment, are increasingly being discovered as internal pollutants of the human body. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the available evidence on human exposure, tissue distribution, and associated biological effects of micro- and nanoplastics. Ingesting contaminated food and water is the major exposure pathway, with inhalation and dermal contact being secondary routes. Various organ systems have been identified as containing polymer particles through the use of advanced analytical methods, including blood, liver, lungs, placenta, breast milk, and brain tissue. Experimental animal studies suggest associations with tissue injury, metabolic illness, and neurotoxicity. Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polyethylene terephthalate are the most frequently found polymers in human samples. New clinical findings indicate potential health implications, though current human evidence remains largely associative rather than causal: a cardiovascular study observed more than a two-fold rise in mortality among patients with polymer-containing arterial plaques, and recent evidence demonstrates over-accumulation of polymers in brain tissue, raising questions about neuroinflammatory processes. Detection technologies have advanced substantially, with deep learning-based polymer classification achieving 95–99% accuracy and ultrasensitive electrochemical and surface plasmon resonance biosensors reaching detection limits approaching 10⁻¹¹ M. Despite these advances, critical issues remain, including lack of standardized analytical procedures, absence of chronic exposure models for humans, and insufficient longitudinal epidemiological data. To address these gaps, physiologically relevant experimental systems including organoids and organ-on-chip platforms will be required, in addition to well-designed prospective cohort studies. Full article

The accumulation of polylactic acid nano-plastics (PLA-NPs) in saline–alkali soils poses a potential threat to crop growth; however, the underlying toxicological mechanisms remain poorly understood. We conducted a hydroponic experiment to investigate the effects of polylactic acid (PLA) NPs (100 and 500 mg L⁻¹) under conditions both in the presence (50 mmol L⁻¹ NaCl) and absence of salt stress on maize seed germination, seedling growth, physiological characteristics, and transcriptomic responses. The results showed that exposure to PLA-NPs, particularly at a high concentration (500 mg L⁻¹), significantly inhibited seed germination and seedling growth. Compared to the low concentration (100 mg L⁻¹) of PLA-NPs, the high concentrations (500 mg L⁻¹) reduced the germination percentage by 25.0% and fresh weight by 25.8% and increased root MDA (6.7%), SOD (30.0%), POD (6.3%), ASA (13.4%), and GSH (13.1%). Under the same concentration of the PLA, PLA + NaCl treatments exerted stronger inhibitory effects than PLA-NPs alone, with the seed germination percentage and fresh weight reduced by an average of 52.7% and 6.6%, respectively. Notably, the inhibitory effects and integrated biomarker response (IBR) index of the PLA 500 + NaCl treatment were the highest. The presence of PLA-NPs in roots was confirmed using confocal laser scanning microscopy. GO enrichment analysis showed that pathways related to nutrient reservoir activity, oxidoreductase activity, hydrogen peroxide catabolic process, and hydrogen peroxide metabolic process were enriched under PLA-NP and PLA + NaCl treatments. KEGG analysis further indicated enrichment in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, ABC transporters, and alpha-linolenic acid metabolism. The PLA-NP and PLA + NaCl treatments upregulated genes associated with oxidoreductase activity (Zm00001eb238800, Zm00001eb128620, and Zm00001eb020790). These findings suggest that synergistic toxicity of PLA-NPs and salinity stress in maize is primarily driven by the internalization of PLA-NPs and Na⁺ within maize roots, which negatively impacts maize seed germination and seedling growth by disrupting redox homeostasis and metabolic balance, thereby forcing plants to reallocate resources from growth toward oxidative stress defense. This study provides critical insights into the environmental risks of biodegradable nano-plastics in saline–alkali soil environments. Full article

Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as persistent environmental contaminants due to their persistence, widespread distribution, and potential risks to the environment and human health. This review focuses on the sources of MPs, their potential environmental risks, and human impacts, as documented in the recent literature from 2020 to 2026. Recent studies focusing on pathways, environmental weathering, and toxicity were evaluated and synthesized into the analysis. Previous studies have demonstrated that microplastics are transported across and between environmental compartments. Environmental degradation, driven by ultraviolet radiation, mechanical fragmentation, and oxidation, can alter microplastics’ surface characteristics, which may affect microplastic mobility, reactivity, and the solid-state adsorption of contaminants. Human exposure occurs primarily through ingestion and inhalation, with dermal and occupational exposure also contributing under certain conditions. Emerging evidence from in vitro, animal, and human tissue studies suggests that smaller particles, particularly nanoplastics, may contribute to oxidative stress, inflammation, and cellular injury; however, important uncertainties remain regarding environmentally realistic exposure levels, long-term health outcomes, and the extrapolation of experimental findings to real-world human health risk. Overall, the current literature highlights the need for standardized methodologies, improved integration of environmental monitoring and exposure assessment, and stronger evidence to support risk assessment and policy development. Full article

Microplastics and nanoplastics (MNPLs) are increasingly recognized as dynamic vectors capable of transporting a wide range of environmental contaminants, as well as acting as physical particulates. Their small size, high surface reactivity and strong sorption capacity allow them to carry metals, pesticides, pharmaceuticals and endocrine-active compounds into biological systems. This narrative review examines how these particle-contaminant complexes influence oxidative stress, inflammatory signaling and endocrine function during early development. Relevant literature was identified through structured searches of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, with a focus on the physicochemical properties of plastics, sorption mechanisms, gut barrier physiology and developmental toxicology. Early developmental stages are particularly sensitive, as immature mucus layers, permeable epithelial junctions and underdeveloped detoxification pathways facilitate the uptake and systemic distribution of MNPLs. Once internalized, these particles and their chemical cargo promote the generation of reactive oxygen species through redox-active contaminants, surface-catalysed reactions and mitochondrial dysfunction. The resulting oxidative imbalance activates stress-responsive pathways, including Nrf2–Keap1 signaling, and promotes lipid peroxidation, DNA damage and cellular dysfunction. MNPLs also stimulate inflammatory cascades by activating pattern-recognition receptors, altering cytokine profiles and disrupting epithelial homeostasis. These responses are intensified in the presence of sorbed pollutants, leading to sustained inflammatory states that can be particularly detrimental during organogenesis and immune maturation. Endocrine function is likewise affected, as MNPLs transport hormonally active chemicals and can interfere with hormone-responsive pathways through oxidative and inflammatory mechanisms. These interactions may disrupt thyroid signaling, metabolic regulation and the development of the reproductive axis, with potential long-term physiological consequences. Integrating evidence from polymer chemistry, contaminant behavior and developmental physiology, this review shows that MNPLs act as biologically active vectors that may increase oxidative, inflammatory and endocrine disturbances during early development. These findings highlight the importance of considering particle–contaminant interactions as a critical component of early-life risk assessment. Full article

Microplastic (MP) contamination has become a defining feature of twenty-first century environmental change, yet the toxicological and ecological consequences for amphibians and reptiles—two vertebrate classes already facing severe extinction pressures—remain fragmented across taxa, regions, and methodological traditions. Here, we synthesize field and experimental evidence from five continents to provide a taxonomically balanced, mechanistically grounded, and geographically explicit assessment of MP exposure, bioaccumulation, and toxicity in herpetofauna, drawing on a structured literature search in Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed (January 2015—March 2026). Field detection rates of MPs in amphibian larvae range from 26% in conservatively screened Central European populations to 73–80% in anuran tadpoles from high-anthropogenic-pressure Anatolian catchments, with fibrous polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP) particles dominating the detected burden. Mechanistic evidence converges on oxidative stress cascades, hypothalamic–pituitary–thyroid axis disruption, gut and cutaneous microbiome dysbiosis, and compromised antiviral and antifungal immunity, with the latter potentially amplifying vulnerability to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis and to ranavirus. Among reptiles, sea turtles display near-universal MP ingestion with documented maternal transfer to eggs; freshwater turtles, terrestrial squamates, and crocodilians remain critically understudied. Three structural asymmetries constrain current ecotoxicological risk characterization: taxonomic bias toward anurans and sea turtles, geographic bias toward the Global North, and experimental bias toward acute, supra-environmental laboratory exposures using pristine, single-polymer particles that fail to capture the chemical complexity of weathered field mixtures. We argue that MP burden may warrant consideration as a candidate stressor criterion within IUCN Red List assessments and within environmental risk assessment frameworks for freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity once a robust quantitative relationship between MP burden and demographic decline or population-level fitness has been established, and propose six hypothesis-driven research priorities: methodological standardization, reptile toxicokinetics, transgenerational epigenetics, MP–pathogen microbiome interactions and their translation into population viability models, temperature × MP interaction under climate warming, and population-genetic consequences of contemporary MP-driven selection, as the most tractable avenues for ecotoxicological progress and for the development of herpetofauna-specific risk characterization frameworks. Full article

Particulate emerging contaminants (PECs) pose increasing ecological risks due to their widespread occurrence and complex environmental behaviors, yet their heterogeneous toxic mechanisms remain poorly understood, especially under environmentally relevant conditions and concentration gradients. Here, Chlorella vulgaris was used as a model organism to systematically compare the effects of polystyrene nanoparticles (PSNPs), silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂NPs) across environmentally relevant and elevated concentrations (100 μg/L and 10 mg/L). Distinct toxicity pathways were identified among PEC types. PSNPs primarily induced chronic interference via particle–cell interactions, heteroaggregation, sedimentation-driven shading, and extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) regulation, rather than ROS-dominated toxicity. In contrast, AgNPs exhibited transformation-driven toxicity, undergoing intracellular speciation into Ag₂S, AgCl, and Ag⁺, which triggered oxidative stress, membrane damage, and lipid peroxidation. TiO₂NPs showed relatively high bioavailability and persistent oxidative stress effects. These results demonstrate that PEC toxicity evolves with particle type and concentration. Importantly, oxidative stress alone is insufficient to capture PEC ecotoxicity, which also involves the long-term impacts on algal behavior, sedimentation dynamics, and energy metabolism. This study provides mechanistic insights into PEC-induced algal toxicity and supports the source-oriented management of particulate pollutants in aquatic environments, particularly in hotspot scenarios such as wastewater discharge and sediment resuspension. Full article

The flooded rice rhizosphere is a continuous reactive interface composed of sediment, porewater, root-surface oxic microdomains, and iron plaque, where redox processes and Fe cycling regulate Cd/As speciation, bioavailability, and plant accumulation. Engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) have shown potential for reducing Cd/As uptake in rice, but the coupled roles of microbial community responses, iron-plaque gating, and cross-interface elemental migration remain insufficiently integrated. This review synthesizes the current evidence on ENM transformation and partitioning at flooded rhizosphere microinterfaces, focusing on front-end speciation changes, root-surface retention, microbial functional regulation, and plant sequestration or transport. Correlative evidence suggests that rhizosphere microorganisms are associated with altered redox conditions, Fe cycling, As methylation potential, and metabolite secretion, which may influence Cd/As partitioning and cross-interface migration. However, direct causal validation of the complete ENM transformation–microbial response–Fe cycling–Cd/As flux–grain accumulation sequence within a single integrated system remains lacking. We further discuss how elevated CO₂, micro-/nanoplastics, Fe/DOM dynamics, and water management regimes may modify this framework, and we identify Sb as a theoretical boundary case because direct ENM–rice evidence remains limited. Finally, we highlight the need to integrate spatial tracing and imaging methods, including persistent luminescence tracing, LA-ICP-MS, NanoSIMS, and µ-XRF/µ-XANES, with metaomics to connect particle localization, microbial function, and contaminant fate. Full article

In recent decades, plastic consumption has risen across various industries and everyday products, leading to greater plastic use and the generation of waste, which results in the leaching of micro- and nanoplastics into the environment. This review summarizes recent analytical methods for the detection of nanoplastics (NPs) in several marine matrices, divided into three main stages: extraction, separation, and identification. The literature reviewed indicates that chemical and enzymatic digestion are the most commonly used procedures for the extraction step. For the separation step, flotation, filtration, and centrifugation are the most used techniques. Finally, two groups of techniques may be used for the identification step. The first category consists of methods used for qualitative identification, with spectroscopic methods such as Raman and FTIR being the most frequently used. The second category comprises those used for the quantitative analysis of NPs, where fluorescence-based methods and nanoparticle tracking analysis are increasingly used for this assessment. Despite these advances, significant challenges remain, such as matrix interferences caused by salinity and organic matter, low environmental concentrations of NPs, and the lack of standardized protocols. This review highlights the need for standardized protocols, validated reference materials, and integrated multi-technique approaches to improve the comparability of nanoplastics measurements in marine environments. Full article