Search Results (15)

Objective: Body awareness is the conscious, subjective multimodal integration of body-related sensitivity from bodily signals—detecting states and subtle reactions to internal and environmental conditions—modifiable by attention, interpretation, appraisal, beliefs, memories, conditioning, attitudes, and affect. The aim of our study is to identify patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) of BA and evaluate their psychometric properties and cross-cultural adaptation processes. Literature Survey: We searched PubMed, Scopus, and PsycINFO; the last search was conducted on 1 July 2025. Methodology: We included studies that psychometrically evaluated PROMs regarding BA in the general adult population and their translations into other languages, with no time-range restrictions. Study selection was performed independently by two reviewers in a blind manner. Evaluation followed COSMIN guidance for systematic reviews of PROMs: (1) risk of bias assessment, (2) application of quality criteria for measurement properties, and (3) GRADE rating of the certainty of evidence. Synthesis: We identified 12 BA questionnaires and more than 30 cross-cultural adaptations, from a total of 50 studies. In summary, the Revised Body Awareness Rating Questionnaire and the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA 1 and 2) showed good results for structural validity and internal consistency, which were the most frequently assessed psychometric properties. In contrast, construct validity was highly variable, and the findings on reliability were far from optimal. MAIA-2 was one of the most studied and showed stronger evidence and better pooled results (4 out of 5 properties) than other instruments. Conclusions: The psychometric quality of BA PROMs varies widely, reflecting challenges in operationalizing the construct of body awareness and related domains. While MAIA-2 currently presents the most acceptable—though still imperfect—evidence, further high-quality studies are needed to strengthen their measurement properties and clarify construct coverage. Full article

Interoceptive impairments are increasingly recognized as psychopathology processes underlying emotional disorders. However, their relationship with depression remains inconclusive. Alexithymia may influence the association between interoception and depressive symptoms. This study aimed to examine the role of alexithymia between interoception and depression. Eighty-eight depressed patients (DEPs) and fifty healthy controls (HCs) were recruited. Interoceptive sensibility was assessed using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness, and interoceptive accuracy and interoceptive awareness were evaluated through heartbeat counting tasks. Alexithymia was measured with the Toronto Alexithymia Scale. In the DEP group, depressive symptoms were assessed using the Hamilton Depression Scale. In DEPs, none of the three dimensions of interoception were associated with depressive symptoms. The alexithymic depressed patients exhibited lower interoceptive sensibility than their non-alexithymic counterparts, while the latter did not differ from the HC group. Moreover, alexithymia mediated the link between interoceptive sensibility and depressive symptoms. These results suggested that impaired interoceptive sensibility may primarily contribute to alexithymia, which, in turn, leads to depression. This highlights the importance of addressing alexithymia in therapeutic interventions aimed at improving the interoceptive process in depressed individuals. Full article

Motor imagery (MI) requires the mental representation of the body, obtained by integrating exteroceptive and interoceptive information. This study aimed to investigate the role of interoceptive sensitivity (IS) in MI performed through visual and kinesthetic modalities by participants with low (lows, N = 26; SHSS: A, M + SD: 1.00 + 1.52), medium (mediums, N = 11; SHSS: A, 6.00 + 0.77) and high hypnotizability scores (highs, N = 16; SHSS:A, 9.75 + 1.24), as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form A. The three groups displayed different MI abilities and IS levels. The efficacy of MI was measured using the chronometric index and self-reported experience, while IS was measured using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) questionnaire. Alpha and beta power spectrum densities (PSDs) were extracted from the EEG signals acquired during baseline, actual movement and visually and kinesthetically imagined movements. The chronometric indices do not reveal significant differences between groups and imagery modalities. The self-report MI efficacy indicates better kinesthetic imagery in highs and mediums than in lows, and no modality difference among lows. The MAIA dimensions sustain the differences in subjective experience and almost all the EEG differences. The latter are slightly different in highs, mediums and lows. This is the first report of the major role played by IS in MI and strongly supports the theory of embodied cognition. Full article

Background: In stressful situations, to overcome unpleasant emotions, individuals try to manage stress through emotion regulation strategies such as cognitive reappraisal, interoception, and mindfulness. Method: 26 healthy adults underwent a modified version of the Trier Social Stress Test (named the Social Stress Test, SST) while their electrophysiological (EEG) activity was monitored. Participants also completed self-report questionnaires prior to this, including the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ), Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), Emotional Regulation of Others and Self (EROS), and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI). Three brain regions of interest (ROIs) were considered in the EEG data processing: frontal, temporo-central, and parieto-occipital. Correlational analyses were performed between psychometric scales and EEG band power spectral values for each ROI. Results: The results showed positive correlations between interoceptive awareness, mindfulness, and high-frequency EEG bands (beta, alpha, gamma) over frontal ROI, indicating enhanced cognitive processing and emotional regulation. Conversely, emotion regulation and empathy measures correlated positively with low-frequency EEG bands (delta, theta), associated with improved social cognition and top-down regulatory processes. Conclusions: These findings suggest that EEG correlations of the stress response are connected to emotion regulation mechanisms, emphasizing the importance of body state awareness in managing stress and emotions for overall well-being and quality of life. Full article

Baccalaureate nursing students are at increased risk for anxiety and related mood disorders. We conducted a cross-sectional study to explore the relationships among anxiety symptoms measured by the Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD-7) questionnaire and lifestyle behaviors including habitual diet, sleep quality (Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index [PSQI]), and physical activity. Descriptive statistics were obtained for sample characteristics, and Pearson correlations and backward stepwise linear regression explored relationships between the GAD-7 scores, the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness, version 2 (MAIA-2) subscales, and other variables. Sixty-eight students completed the survey, with 38% having moderate-to-severe anxiety. On average, respondents had moderate diet quality (Healthy Eating Index median 60/100 [range 51–75]), had high sleep quality (PSQI median 7/21 [range 4–10]), and were highly active, with a median of 43 (range 24–78) weekly metabolic equivalent (MET) hours. Sixty-seven out of 68 respondents indicated a willingness to change lifestyle behaviors; the most prevalent time-related factors were school and social commitments, with stress and financial constraints being reported among half or more of respondents. Regression analysis determined that PSQI (β = 0.446) and the MAIA-2 Not-Worrying subscale (β = −0.366) were significant (p < 0.001 for both) predictors of anxiety severity. These results indicate that mindfulness and sleep hygiene may be the most actionable foci for interventions to reduce anxiety in baccalaureate nursing students. This study was not registered as a clinical trial. Full article

This study aims to identify the sensory characteristics of children with both developmental disabilities such as ASD and ADHD and a history of child maltreatment (DM group), children with developmental disabilities (DD group), and typically developed children (TD group). The sensory characteristics of 24 children were assessed through virtual reality and self-administered questionnaires. The results elucidated that the duration of gazing at the “teacher” (60–75 s) was significantly different with the DM group’s gaze being shorter than the DD group’s gaze (p = 0.042). The duration of the “others” gaze (45–60 s) was also significantly different with the DM group’s gaze being longer than the DD and TD groups’ gaze (p = 0.018; p = 0.030). Additionally, the scores for tactile sensitivity, taste/smell sensitivity, under-responsive/seeks sensation, and the total short-term sensory profile were significantly different between the DM-DD and DD-TD groups. The scores of the heart rate perception test and Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness were significantly lower in the DM and DD groups. In conclusion, children who have experienced trauma and developmental disabilities may have different sensory characteristics than children with only developmental disabilities or none, implying the need for further research and tailored care. Full article

Background: There is growing support for considering Dance Movement Therapy (DMT) as an effective approach to improving physical and psychological symptoms in eating disorders (ED), but additional evidence is needed. The current study aims to investigate the effectiveness of a DMT intervention for inpatients with ED during an in-hospital rehabilitation program for ED in reducing emotion dysregulation and alexithymia and improving interoceptive awareness. Methods: Forty-nine consecutive inpatient young women with ED (aged between 18 and 34 years) recruited from a clinical center for the rehabilitation of obesity and ED received four group sessions of DMT intervention. All participants completed the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS), and the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness Scale (MAIA) before (Time 0) and after the intervention (Time 1). Paired-sample t-tests were run to assess differences between Time 0 to Time 1. Results: From pre-to-post interventions, there was a significant reduction in the means of all of the subscales of DERS, suggesting an improvement in emotion regulation competencies, with the only exception for difficulties in awareness that increased (p = 0.016). We also found a significant reduction in alexithymia, as proved by significant differences in all of the subscales and the total score of TAS (p < 0.001), and significant improvements in interoceptive awareness as suggested by increased scores of the noticing (p = 0.043), emotional awareness (p < 0.001), body listening (p < 0.001), and trusting (p < 0.001) subscales of MAIA. Conclusion: Overall, our results point towards the efficacy of dance/movement in reducing symptoms of eating disorders. Our findings also suggest that dancing can be considered a useful intervention to increase emotional regulation, reduce alexithymia, and enhance interoceptive awareness. Full article

Introduction: The transition to college life can impact the mental health of students. There are mental health care strategies that promote connection with the body’s internal signals, which can help to improve mental well-being, manage emotions, and reduce the risk of suicide in university students. Aim: This study aimed to examine the association between interoceptive body awareness variables and suicidal orientation in a sample of 169 undergraduate students in Colombia. Methods: An observational, cross-sectional study was conducted in 2023 with Colombian students as the participants. Results: The findings revealed a significant and moderately negative correlation between the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) total score and the Inventory of Suicide Orientation (ISO-30) total score (r = −0.54, p < 0.001). Confidence and self-regulation were identified as the most influential factors in the relationship between MAIA and ISO-30. Significant correlations were observed (p < 0.001), indicating moderate correlation values ranging from −0.43 to −0.57. Discussion: Our findings support the existence of a negative correlation between interoceptive body awareness and suicidal orientation. Further research is needed to better understand this relationship and to develop specific interventions based on body awareness to prevent suicide orientation. Conclusion: There are practical implications associated with recognizing the importance of body awareness in relation to decreasing suicidal orientation, and multidisciplinary teams addressing mental health can incorporate this knowledge. Full article

Introduction: The university student population is influenced by multiple factors that affect body awareness. Identifying the body awareness status of students is crucial in creating self-care and emotion management programs to prevent diseases and promote health. The Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) questionnaire evaluates interoceptive body awareness in eight dimensions through 32 questions. It is one of the few tools that enable a comprehensive assessment of interoceptive body awareness by involving eight dimensions of analysis. Method: The objective of this study is to present the psychometric properties of the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) to observe to what extent the hypothesized model fits the population of university students in Colombia. A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted with 202 students who met the inclusion criterion of being undergraduate university students. Data were collected in May 2022. Results: A descriptive analysis of the sociodemographic variables of age, gender, city, marital status, discipline, and history of chronic diseases was performed. JASP 0.16.4.0 statistical software was used to conduct confirmatory factor analysis. A confirmatory factor analysis was performed based on the proposed eight-factor model of the original MAIA, giving a significant p-value and 95% confidence interval. However, when performing loading factor analysis, a low p-value was found for item 6 of the Not Distracting factor, and for the entire Not Worrying factor. Discussion: A seven-factor model with modifications is proposed. Conclusions: The results of this study confirmed the validity and reliability of the MAIA in the Colombian university student population. Full article

Interoceptive awareness, the conscious perception of internal bodily states, is a key construct of mind-body interaction. Decreases in interoceptive awareness, as measured by the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), are found in chronic pain patients. In this study, we explored whether a specific aspect of interoceptive awareness is a risk for the onset and chronicity of pain. A longitudinal cohort study was conducted in 2018 and 2020 among a sample of full-time workers in an industrial manufacturing company in Japan. Participants completed a questionnaire on pain intensity, MAIA, exercise habits, kinesiophobia, psychological distress and work stress. Principal component analyses using the MAIA identified two principal components: self-control and emotional stability. Low emotional stability was associated with the prevalence of moderate to severe pain in 2020 among people with mild or no pain in 2018 (p < 0.01). Lack of exercise habits were associated with the prevalence of moderate to severe pain in 2020 among people with pain in 2018 (p < 0.01). Furthermore, exercise habits were associated with reduction in kinesiophobia among people with moderate to severe pain in 2018 (p = 0.047). Overall, these findings indicate that low emotional stability may be a risk for the onset of moderate to severe pain; lack of exercise habits may sustain kinesiophobia and be a risk for the chronicity of pain. Full article

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with dysfunctional self-reported interoception (i.e., abnormal perception of the body’s physiological state) and systemic inflammation, both of which adversely affect treatment response. In this study, we explored associations between C-reactive protein (CRP) and self-reported interoception, to gain more insight into the pathophysiology of interoceptive impairments in MDD. We also aimed to replicate previous findings on the associations of depression and fatigue severity with CRP. The study included 97 depressed individuals, who completed self-administered questionnaires (Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA-2); Beck Depression Inventory-II, Multidimensional Fatigue Inventory). CRP concentrations were analyzed in the serum using a particle-enhanced turbidimetric immunoassay. We applied Bayesian inference to estimate robust effect parameters from posterior distributions based on MCMC sampling, and computed Bayes factors (BF₁₀) as indices of relative evidence. The bivariate analysis supported evidence against associations between CRP and self-reported interoception (BF₁₀ ≤ 0.32), except for one dimension (Not-Distracting: r = 0.11, BF₁₀ > 0.43, absence of evidence). Positive correlations with overall depression (r = 0.21, BF₁₀ = 3.19), physical fatigue (r = 0.28, BF₁₀ = 20.64), and reduced activity (r = 0.22, BF₁₀ = 4.67) were found. The multivariate analysis showed moderate evidence that low-grade inflammation predicted higher scores on the MAIA-2 Not-Worrying scale (β = 0.28, BF₁₀ = 3.97), after controlling for relevant confounders. Inflammatory responses, as measured by CRP, may not be involved in the pathophysiology of dysfunctional self-reported interoception. However, systemic low-grade inflammation could potentially exert a protective effect against worries about pain or discomfort sensations. An immunological involvement in interoceptive impairments cannot be ruled out until future studies considering additional biomarkers of inflammation replicate our findings. Full article

Children with developmental disabilities (DDs) have sensory modulation disorders that interrelate school performance. Virtual reality (VR) has demonstrated the potential to become a neuropsychological assessment modality. This study was conducted to explore the feasibility of the VR classroom for assessing their characteristics of gaze, school performance, and interoception. School-aged children were assigned to the DD group or control group. A VR classroom was designed to evaluate their gaze patterns to distracting events. Interoception was assessed using the Heart Rate Perception test and the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA). The DD group had a significantly longer gaze duration on the virtual teacher during 30–45 s of the VR classroom event (p < 0.05). The mean score of the quiz and the Heart Rate Perception test showed a significant tendency to be lower than the children of the control group. The DD group scored significantly lower in six of eight subscales of the MAIA. These results showed the potential of VR classroom to evaluate the difference of sensory modulation between school-aged children with DDs and typically developed children. Future research is necessary to investigate the validity of the VR environment used in this study. Full article

Individuals with different hypnotizability display different interoceptive sensitivity/awareness (IS) and accuracy (IA), likely sustained by morphofunctional differences in interoception-related brain regions and, thus, possibly also observable during sleep. We investigated the heartbeat-evoked cortical potential amplitude (HEP) during sleep, its association with IS, and the role of hypnotizability in such association. We performed a retrospective analysis of polysomnographic recordings of 39 healthy volunteers. Participants completed the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA), measuring IS and IA, and underwent hypnotic assessment via the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, form A. The amplitude of the early and late HEP components was computed at EEG frontal and central sites. In both regions, the early HEP component was larger in N3 than in N2 and REM, with no difference between N2 and REM. Greater HEP amplitude at frontal than at central sites was found for the late HEP component. HEP amplitudes were not influenced by the autonomic state assessed by heart rate variability in the frequency and time domains. We report for the first time a positive correlation between the central late HEP component and MAIA dimensions, which became non-significant after removing the effects of hypnotizability. Our findings indicate that hypnotizability sustains the correlation between IS and HEP amplitude during sleep. Full article

The current coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has been reported to influence interoceptive sensibility. This study focused on adaptive and maladaptive aspects of interoceptive sensibility and examined how each aspect of interoceptive sensibility affects depression, anxiety, and somatization symptoms under the mild lockdown in Japan, which was not enforceable and a non-punitive lockdown. We used data from 10,672 participants who lived in prefectures where the emergency declaration was first applied in Japan. Interoceptive sensibility was measured by the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA). The findings show that Noticing, a subscale of the MAIA, significantly contributed to the worsening of psychological and somatic symptoms (all ps < 0.001). Conversely, Not-Distracting, Not-Worrying, Self-Regulation, and Trusting significantly contributed to the decrease of these symptoms (all ps < 0.05). The findings suggest that two aspects of interoceptive sensibility affected mental health in different ways during the mild lockdown. Mindfulness and mindfulness-based interventions would be effective in terms of enhancing adaptive aspects of interoceptive sensibility. Full article

(1) Background. This research examined the feasibility, acceptability and outcomes of delivering a 6-week yoga-based meditation intervention to clinical teams of hospice professionals (HPs) at a large non-profit hospice organization. The intervention was designed to increase mind-body integration and combat burnout. This article was written for different audiences, including research scientists who study interoception, burnout, meditation, or yoga, designers of meditation interventions, and hospice organizations looking for ways to mitigate HP burnout. (2) Methods. The intervention was launched within clinical teams, beginning with a half-hour online introduction to the program and exposure to the week 1 meditation at each team’s monthly all-staff meeting. Throughout the program, HPs could access the meditations on their own via their workplace computers, tablets, and smartphones. Online pre- and post-intervention surveys were submitted by 151 HPs, 76 of whom were exposed to the intervention and completed both surveys. The surveys assessed burnout using the Professional Fulfillment Index and mind-body integration using the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness scales. (3) Results. Two-thirds of HPs who were present at a staff meeting where the program was introduced went on to do a meditation on their own at least once. Half of HPs expressed a desire to continue with access to the meditations after the 6-week program ended. Due to COVID-19 work from home restrictions, three-fourth of HPs did a meditation at home, 29% in a car between patient visits (not while driving), and 23% at the office. Higher interoceptive awareness was significantly related to lower burnout, particularly lower work exhaustion. Meditation frequency was significantly related to higher interoceptive awareness but not to burnout. Interpersonal disengagement was rare and temporary. (4) Conclusions. Findings showed that the yoga-based meditation intervention was feasible and acceptable and associated with higher interoceptive awareness. The results point to a role for interoceptive awareness in reducing the risk for burnout. Full article