Search Results (699)

Efficient milk protein synthesis in dairy cows, particularly casein production, is crucial for milk quality but has low nitrogen conversion efficiency. This study aimed to determine whether an optimal ratio of glycine, asparagine, and phenylalanine could synergistically promote α-casein synthesis in bovine mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T) and to elucidate its mechanism via the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway. Single-factor experiments and response surface central composite design were conducted to determine the optimal amino acid combination. α-Casein synthesis was measured by ELISA, gene expression by RT-qPCR, and protein phosphorylation by Western blot. A PI3K-specific inhibitor (LY294002) was used in a blocking experiment to validate the involvement of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. Results: The optimal ratio was 9.898 mmol/L glycine, 7.014 mmol/L asparagine, and 5.865 mmol/L phenylalanine (molar ratio 1.69:1.20:1.00). This combination significantly increased α-casein synthesis and secretion compared to any single amino acid (p < 0.01), demonstrating a synergistic effect. It also upregulated CSN1S1 and CSN1S2 expression and activated the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway at both transcriptional and translational levels. The addition of LY294002 completely abolished these effects, confirming the pathway’s crucial role. The optimal combination of glycine, asparagine, and phenylalanine synergistically enhances α-casein synthesis in MAC-T cells by activating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway. These findings provide a theoretical basis for developing targeted amino acid supplementation strategies to improve milk protein production in dairy cows. Full article

The dairy industry is increasingly seeking natural alternatives to synthetic additives to meet the growing demand for clean-label and functional foods. Bee-derived products (BDPs), including propolis, honey, bee pollen, bee bread, and royal jelly, represent a promising class of bioactive ingredients due to their antimicrobial, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties. This review critically examines their integration across the dairy value chain, adopting a farm-to-product perspective. At the farm level, BDPs can modulate rumen fermentation, influence microbial populations, and contribute to improved feed efficiency and reduced enteric methane emissions. These effects may translate into modifications in milk composition and functional properties. At the processing and product levels, the incorporation of BDPs into dairy matrices such as yogurt, cheese, and fermented milk enables the development of functional foods enriched with bioactive compounds and supports probiotic viability in synbiotic systems. However, their application is associated with technological and sensory challenges, including variability in chemical composition, dose-dependent antimicrobial effects, and potential impacts on texture and flavour. By bridging animal and food science, this review highlights the multifunctional role of BDPs in enhancing sustainability, safety, and nutritional value in dairy systems, while identifying current limitations and future research directions for their effective industrial implementation. Full article

Breed and herd are major determinants of milk productivity and efficiency. This study evaluated 1508 lactating cows from three dairy (Holstein, Brown Swiss, Jersey) and three dual-purpose (Simmental, Rendena, Alpine Grey) breeds across 41 multi-breed mountain herds. Data on body size, production, and milk samples were collected. Daily milk yield, milk energy, and cheese yield were quantified, and herds were classified under high (>75 MJ/d) or low (<75 MJ/d) average daily milk energy production. Cheese-making traits were predicted from 508 individual model cheese-making trials. Nine productivity ratios and three efficiency indicators (energy efficiency, economic efficiency, and income over feed costs) were calculated. Data was analyzed using mixed models including herd productivity class, herd within class (random), breed, parity, and days in milk. Differences among breeds were smaller within herds than across herds and were more pronounced for quality and cheese-making traits. Dairy and dual-purpose breeds showed similar overall performance. Jerseys were the least productive in absolute terms but, when adjusted for body size, were as or more efficient than other dairy breeds. Holsteins had the highest milk yield, whereas Brown Swiss showed superior milk quality and cheese yield. Simmental outperformed local dual-purpose breeds in size and production but not in efficiency. Accurate assessment of energy and economic efficiency is essential for breeding and crossbreeding strategies. Full article

Sustaining rice productivity under the dual constraints of freshwater scarcity and low-temperature stress represents a pressing challenge for high-latitude japonica rice systems worldwide. There is an urgent need to develop coupled irrigation–agronomic management strategies that jointly safeguard yield stability and water use efficiency (WUE) in cold-region rice production. In this study, a two-year field experiment was conducted in 2024–2025 on albic soil (Albic Luvisols, WRB; θfc 38.2% v/v, pH 5.80, clayey texture with poor permeability and a propensity for subsurface waterlogging) in the Sanjiang Plain, Heilongjiang Province, China (47°15′ N, 133°28′ E), with nine coupled “irrigation regime × auxiliary practice” treatments, comprising conventional continuous flooding, four-level controlled irrigation (CI) at lower thresholds of 60%, 70%, 75%, and 80% θfc, and their combinations with film mulching (FM) or a humic-acid-based soil amendment (SA). An interpretable machine-learning diagnostic framework was developed, with elastic net (EN) as the primary analytical model and random forest (RF) as a nonlinear control, to simultaneously identify core yield predictors and outlier treatments. The principal findings were: (i) The soil-amendment-coupled 75% θfc CI treatment (SACI) increased grain yield by 12.3% and reduced water input by 17.0% relative to conventional continuous flooding, with WUE reaching 1.801 kg m⁻³, a 35.3% gain over the control (p < 0.05); these improvements were consistent across both individual years (year × treatment interaction: p = 0.601; inter-year rank correlation ρ = 0.967). Lowering the CI threshold below 75% θfc significantly reduced grain yield through diminished effective-panicle retention. (ii) Multi-method consensus analysis (Kendall’s W = 0.871, p < 0.01) identified root volume at the milk stage as the most strongly and consistently associated statistical predictor of yield formation, with convergent mechanistic support from independent rhizosphere evidence (Eh, TTC reductive activity). Definitive causal validation awaits isotope-tracing experiments. (iii) The film-mulching × continuous-flooding treatment (FMCG) was diagnosed as a yield-response outlier (permutation test p = 0.003), three in situ rhizosphere measurements (redox potential, root TTC-reducing activity, and rhizosphere temperature) supported the proposed mechanism of hot–anoxic rhizospheric inhibition. Methodologically, this study develops a four-level evidence convergence framework that integrates intra-model self-consistency, cross-model (EN vs. RF) consensus, independent rhizosphere evidence, and distribution-free permutation testing, with Jackknife+ conformal prediction and companion Monte Carlo simulations (1000 replicates) used to quantify the reliability boundaries under small-sample conditions (n = 27). These findings provide an evidence-based irrigation–soil co-management strategy for cold-region rice production in Northeast China, and the proposed diagnostic paradigm offers a generalizable, reliability-quantified methodological template for interpretable small-sample modeling in multifactorial coupled field experiments. Full article

Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is commonly calculated as the ratio of milk nitrogen output to nitrogen intake in dairy cows. However, because milk nitrogen output is intrinsically determined by milk production and nitrogen intake is largely driven by dry matter intake, conventional NUE is mathematically dependent on production level and feed intake. This dependency makes it difficult to distinguish apparent efficiency caused by higher milk yield from intrinsic biological efficiency in nitrogen utilization. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate NUE in dairy cows using a combined mathematical and metabolic framework based on residual NUE (rNUE) analysis. A total of 126 early-lactation Chinese Holstein cows were screened, and 16 high-NUE and 16 low-NUE cows were selected after matching for parity, days in milk, and dry matter intake. High-NUE cows had greater milk yield, milk nitrogen output, and NUE than low-NUE cows, despite similar nitrogen intake. They also exhibited higher ruminal microbial crude protein and ammonia nitrogen concentrations, a lower acetate-to-propionate ratio, and reduced circulating essential and total amino acid concentrations. Multiple regression analysis showed that energy-corrected milk and dry matter intake explained 71.4% of the variation in NUE. The residuals from this model were defined as rNUE, which was independent of milk production. After removing production-related effects, rNUE remained positively associated with ruminal microbial crude protein and ammonia nitrogen concentrations, and negatively associated with the acetate-to-propionate ratio and circulating amino acid pools. These findings indicate that conventional NUE in dairy cows is largely driven by production level, whereas residual-based modeling can identify a production-independent component associated with rumen nitrogen metabolism and amino acid utilization. The residual NUE approach provides a useful mathematical and metabolic framework for evaluating intrinsic NUE in dairy cows beyond milk production level. Full article

High-yielding dairy cows are highly susceptible to lactational oxidative stress, which compromises mammary barrier integrity and elevates mastitis risk. This study investigated the potential biological mechanisms by which dietary hydroxy-selenomethionine (HMSeBA) alleviates oxidative stress and improves health in dairy cows. Forty Holstein cows were assigned to a basal control group (0.32 mg Se/kg DM) or an HMSeBA-supplemented group (0.64 mg Se/kg DM) for 105 days. HMSeBA significantly enhanced selenium bioavailability in both milk and blood, comprehensively strengthening antioxidant defenses (increased glutathione peroxidase activity, decreased malondialdehyde) and elevated serum immunoglobulins (IgA, IgM, IgG), accompanied by a reduction in milk somatic cell count, without significantly affecting milk yield, feed intake, or milk production efficiency. Multi-omics analysis revealed that HMSeBA supplementation altered the rumen microenvironment by enriching fiber-degrading genera (Prevotellaceae_Ga6A1_group, Xylanibacter, Segatella) and shifting metabolites, including feed flavonoids, peptides, 1-deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate, and 3-OH-C6-HSL. The positive correlation of ruminal 3-OH-C6-HSL with both blood selenium and these enriched taxa suggests a potential link between microbial activity and host selenium status. These findings indicate that HMSeBA supplementation improves the antioxidant and immune status of dairy cows, accompanied by exploratory, hypothesis-generating shifts in the ruminal microbiome and metabolome. Collectively, these findings highlight HMSeBA as a promising nutritional strategy to produce selenium-enriched milk while safeguarding udder health. Full article

Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast products are used to stabilize dairy cattle rumen environments. In this study, multiparous lactating Holstein–Jersey cross cows in late lactation (n = 12; ±150 DIM) were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square design over four 21 d periods to evaluate yeast supplementation on dry matter intake (DMI), milk production, milk components, rumen pH, and redox potential (E_h). A subset of four ruminally cannulated cows were selected for rumen measurements. Treatments included no additive (CON), 14 g yeast culture additive (YCA), 5 g active dry yeast (ADY), and 5 g ADY + 5 g yeast extract additive (YEA) top-dressed once daily. Data were analyzed using GLIMMIX in SAS 9.4, with significance at p ≤ 0.05 and tendencies at p ≤ 0.15. Dry matter intake did not differ among treatments (p > 0.15) but decreased over time (p < 0.05). Milk production, efficiency, lactose, and total solids were not affected (p > 0.15). YCA tended to increase milk fat and fatty acid fractions compared with CON (p < 0.15). Protein in milk was greater in CON (p < 0.05; p < 0.05) than YCA and YEA. Active dry yeast treatments increased the frequency of a buffered rumen (p < 0.05) and promoted a more reducing ruminal environment, characterized by lower redox potential and conditions favorable for anaerobic fermentation (p < 0.05). Overall, supplementing active dry yeasts to dairy cows in late lactation did not affect DMI, production efficiency, or milk quality, but may maintain rumen pH stability. Full article

This study evaluated the effects of replacing alfalfa hay with sulla [Sulla coronaria (L.) B.H. Choi & H. Ohashi] hay or sulla haylage in pasture-based diets for lactating Sarda ewes on milk production, milk composition, and nutrient utilization efficiency. Seventy-two mid-lactation ewes were assigned to three dietary treatments for 56 days—alfalfa hay (AH), sulla hay (SH), or sulla haylage (SHL)—all combined with 3 h/day grazing and a fixed amount of supplemental concentrate. The diets were formulated to be theoretically isoenergetic and isoproteic. Pasture nutritive value was generally comparable among the groups throughout the experimental period. Milk yield did not differ among treatments; however, fat- and protein-corrected milk (FPCM) and milk fat and protein concentrations were higher in AH compared with the sulla-based diets. Actual nutrient intake differed among treatments, with nitrogen intake (NI) being greatest in AH, consistent with the higher milk urea concentration observed in this group. Estimated apparent energy utilization efficiency (FPCM/UFL intake) showed treatment-associated differences in exploratory analyses, with lower values observed in SH compared with AH and SHL. Similarly, exploratory estimates of apparent nitrogen utilization efficiency (Milk N/NI) were highest in SHL, intermediate in SH, and lowest in AH (p < 0.001). Condensed tannins were not detected in the conserved sulla forages under the analytical conditions adopted in this study. Therefore, the observed responses were unlikely to be directly associated with detectable condensed tannin activity. Overall, the results suggest that forage conservation method may influence milk composition and estimated apparent nutrient utilization indices, with sulla haylage showing higher exploratory estimates of apparent nitrogen utilization efficiency without negative effects on milk yield under the conditions of the present study. Full article

Farmers’ investment decisions can shape their capacity to implement practices consistent with sustainable development objectives. The article identifies the declarative structure of investment decisions on Polish dairy farms based on a survey and diverse theoretical frameworks (resource-based view, institutional approach, real options theory, behavioural theory, and the theory of planned behaviour). The purpose is to identify the determinants of the extent and structure of declared agricultural investments. The authors determined the relationships between declared investments and groups of variables and identified investment axes and interdependencies. Investment decision predictions are founded on logistic regression, an SEM model for relationship structuring, and residual correlation analysis for mapping relationships and evaluating the correlation demasking effect, according to which raw correlations between investment axes may hide underlying residual associations between them. We found that declared farmland investments were associated with milk production volume and appeared to be linked to long-term farm development objectives. The respondents became less keen on investing in livestock production as they aged, whereas older farmers showed a greater propensity to undertake energy-related investments. These results suggest that farmers’ declared investment intentions may be consistent with conditions conducive to achieving sustainable development objectives through their potential association with farm viability, resource-use efficiency, and rural economic development. Our findings may have potential policy relevance by informing the design of public measures aimed at strengthening farms’ adaptive capacity in the context of sustainability transitions. Full article

The intensification and continuous evolution of dairy sheep and goat farming have played an essential role in the development and implementation of milking equipment. The increasing demand for time-efficient milking procedures, reduced labour costs, sustained milk production, and optimal mammary health have driven the widespread adoption and optimisation of machine milking technologies. The objectives of this article are (i) the review of milking systems and relevant technological developments in milking equipment and (ii) the evaluation and description of their impact on udder health, as applied on dairy small ruminant farms. Milking systems used on farms depend on the available space and number of animals on the farms. Appropriate settings in milking systems are important for ensuring good milk quality; among them, vacuum level, pulsation rate and ratio are important characteristics that must be monitored regularly. Further, use of appropriate teatcups specific to the animal species to be milked is significant. An important aspect of proper maintenance of the milking system is the cleaning procedure after completion of milking. Points for consideration are quality and temperature of the water used for cleaning, use of detergents and disinfectants, and maintenance schedule and teatcup replacement. Some technological features that are part of milking systems include automatic vacuum shut off, electronic milk recording, electronic identification of animals, automatic flushing of milking clusters and automatic pre-stimulators. Farms will benefit from applying precision technologies, which will use data from tools related to animal genetic background, animal behavioural indicators, environmental conditions and disease-related functions for more holistic and cost-effective farm management. In this context, integration of sensor-based technologies in milking systems will be able to provide real-time information regarding quality of milk produced at individual and farm levels. Moreover, the introduction of automatic system flushing in-between animals during the milking procedure can contribute to breaking chains of potential bacterial transfer and reducing animal infections during milking. Overall, although machine milking has certainly contributed to improved efficiency, milk quality and labour conditions, flaws in system function may adversely affect mammary health. Full article

Automatic milking systems (AMSs) are increasingly adopted in dairy farms, and barn design, particularly regarding cow traffic design (CowTD), plays a key role in system performance. This study evaluated the association between different CowTDs and operational and production indicators of AMS Brazilian dairy farms. The data were obtained from 149 commercial dairy farms equipped with AMS (average of 1.6 AMS per farm) encompassing approximately 14,642 lactating cows recorded between June and December 2025. Cow traffic designs were classified as free or smart-gated systems, including milk-first (MF) and feed-first (FF) configurations. Mixed models were used to evaluate the effects of regions, housing system, and CowTD on the number of lactating cows per AMS (NCowsAMS), milking frequency (MFreq), milk yield per milking (MYMilking), daily milk yield per cow (MYcow), daily milkings per AMS (MilkingsAMS), and daily milk yield per AMS (MYAMS). On average, farms milked 58 cows per AMS with a mean MFreq of 2.69 milkings/cow per day and produced 2227 kg of milk per AMS per day. Smart-gated CowTD supported a greater number of cows per AMS than free CowTD systems (FF = 57 and MF = 58 vs. Free = 53 cows/AMS). Although free CowTD increased MFreq to approximately three milkings/cow/day, this advantage did not translate into greater or equivalent MYAMS, despite MF and free CowTD exhibiting similar MYcow (37.0 and 37.2 kg/day, respectively). Even though free CowTD achieved the highest MilkingsAMS (Free = 156 vs. MF = 151 and FF = 143 milkings/day), it milked fewer cows per robot, resulting in lower MYAMS. Consequently, FF and MF systems produced 86 and 180 kg/day more MYAMS, respectively, than free CowTD. These results suggest that AMS performance is primarily driven by the NCowsAMS rather than MFreq alone. Under Brazilian commercial conditions, smart-gated CowTD systems appear to be more efficient, as evidenced by higher MYAMS, while allowing higher stocking densities, potentially without increasing labor requirements. Full article

This study evaluated the effects of dietary inclusion of free and protected acid protease on productive performance, milk composition, metabolic profile, nutrient digestibility, and ruminal environment in lactating Jersey cows. Fifteen multiparous cows (67 ± 7.5 days in milk; 27.5 ± 3.5 kg/day) were assigned to a 3 × 3 Latin square (5 squares) design with 21-day periods. Treatments consisted of: control (no enzyme), free protease (4.4 g/day), and protected protease (4.4 g/day). The protected form was developed using alginate-based encapsulation to enhance enzyme stability under ruminal conditions. Protease inclusion did not affect dry matter intake, milk yield, or feed efficiency (p > 0.05). However, free protease increased lactation persistency (p = 0.05) and improved fat-corrected and energy-corrected milk yields (p ≤ 0.02), with intermediate responses observed for protected protease. Milk fat and protein contents were higher in enzyme-fed cows (p ≤ 0.05), while other compositional parameters remained unchanged. Apparent crude protein digestibility was greater in cows receiving free protease (p = 0.037), with no effects on dry matter or fiber digestibility. Protease intake increased total volatile fatty acid concentrations and major fermentation products (acetate, propionate, and butyrate; p ≤ 0.01), indicating enhanced ruminal fermentation. Blood metabolites showed increased total protein and globulin levels in cows fed free protease (p ≤ 0.05), suggesting improved protein metabolism. Microbiota analysis revealed no differences in alpha or beta diversity; however, specific microbial taxa and predicted metabolic pathways were modulated by treatments, particularly in post-ruminal compartments. In conclusion, exogenous protease, especially in free form, improved protein utilization and corrected milk production without disrupting microbial stability. These findings highlight the potential of protease as a nutritional strategy to enhance efficiency in dairy systems through targeted modulation of ruminal function and nutrient metabolism. Full article

The European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy promotes extensive farming to achieve sustainability goals, yet dairy production in the Baltic states and Poland has continued to intensify, particularly after the abolition of milk quotas in 2015. This study assesses the technical efficiency of intensive and extensive dairy farms in Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, and Poland over the period 2015–2022, using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) combined with a meta-frontier framework that explicitly accounts for technological heterogeneity across production systems. Farms are classified as intensive or extensive based on stocking density relative to forage area, applying the threshold of one livestock unit per hectare. Results show that in all Baltic countries intensive farms exhibit higher meta-frontier technical efficiency than extensive farms, with the gap increasing over time, especially in Lithuania. Technology Gap Ratio results indicate convergence between production systems in Estonia and Latvia, while in Lithuania intensive farms became technologically closer to the national frontier after 2020. In contrast, Poland shows a different pattern: intensive farms operated closer to the meta-frontier but achieved lower efficiency, suggesting managerial constraints. Regression analysis confirmed that production intensity is a positive and statistically significant determinant of meta-frontier technical efficiency in all Baltic countries. These findings suggest that current economic conditions favour intensification and that extensification policies can only be effective if they adequately compensate for the efficiency disadvantage faced by extensive farms. Full article

The escalating global threat of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has intensified efforts to identify safe, effective, and sustainable alternatives to in-feed antibiotics in livestock production. The bovine gastrointestinal microbiome plays a central role in host immunity, nutrient utilization, and disease resilience, positioning microbiome-modulating interventions as promising candidates for antimicrobial stewardship. Despite growing experimental interest, a systematic synthesis of the available evidence in cattle is lacking. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the efficacy of microbiome-modulating interventions, including probiotics, prebiotics, postbiotics, phytogenic feed additives, essential oils, organic acids, and native rumen microbial supplements, as strategies to reduce antimicrobial use in cattle, and to characterize their effects on gut microbial diversity, fermentation characteristics, and host health and performance outcomes. A systematic search of Scopus, Web of Science, and EBSCOhost (including Academic Search Ultimate, MEDLINE with full text, and CAB Abstracts with Full text) was conducted in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Studies were eligible if they used cattle (dairy cattle, beef cattle, calves, or mixed production systems), employed a microbiome-modulating intervention, and reported at least one microbiological or host outcome. Seventeen peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2025 were included after full-text screening. Risk of bias was assessed using an adapted SYRCLE tool, which identified moderate overall study quality; the majority of included studies were randomized controlled trials or controlled experiments, though reporting of allocation concealment and blinding was inconsistent across studies. Across the 17 included studies, five broad categories of interventions were evaluated: probiotics (n = 5 studies), prebiotics (n = 2), postbiotics and organic acids (n = 4), phytogenic additives and essential oils (n = 4), and native rumen microbial supplements (n = 2). Animals spanned neonatal dairy calves, weaned Holstein calves, dairy heifers, lactating dairy cows, and Bos indicus feedlot beef cattle. Probiotics and organic acids most consistently improved growth performance: benzoic acid supplementation increased average daily gain by 8.4% (p < 0.05) and fructo-oligosaccharide prebiotics elevated body weight at weaning by 6.7% (p < 0.01). Native rumen microbial supplements improved energy-corrected milk yield by up to 3.1% without increasing dry matter intake. Polyphenols and bile acids demonstrated the strongest immunological and disease-preventive effects, reducing calf mortality by approximately 40% and disease severity by approximately 35%, respectively. Microbiome analyses revealed intervention-dependent increases in microbial diversity and shifts toward taxa associated with improved fermentation efficiency, including enrichment of propionate-producing Prevotellaceae, butyrate-associated Ruminococcus, and hindgut Bifidobacterium. Rumen fermentation outcomes included reductions in the acetate:propionate ratio and ammonia-N concentrations and improvements in fiber digestibility of 3.6–4.4 percentage units in dairy cows. Phytogenic additives preserved microbial diversity without inducing broad-spectrum suppression, functioning primarily as microbiome stabilizers rather than direct antimicrobial replacements. This systematic review provides evidence that gut microbiome modulation may enhance growth performance, improve fermentation efficiency, and reduce disease susceptibility in cattle, thereby supporting antimicrobial use reduction across dairy, beef, and mixed production systems. Effect magnitudes varied substantially across intervention categories and production contexts, and study quality was moderate, underscoring the need for larger, pre-registered trials with standardized outcome reporting and direct antibiotic comparator arms. Probiotics, prebiotics, and bile acid metabolites showed the greatest potential as components of integrated antimicrobial stewardship strategies in cattle production. Full article

Probiotic lactic acid bacteria are widely recognized for their health-promoting effects. However, the use of live microorganisms may pose safety concerns and stability limitations. Consequently, postbiotics, defined as inactivated microbial cells and/or their components, have emerged as a promising alternative. This study integrates genome-guided evaluation of probiotic potential, experimental validation of in silico predictions and process optimization for the production of inactivated Lactiplantibacillus plantarum DM1 and KK1 cells as postbiotics. Genome mining identified genes and gene clusters associated with metabolic versatility, antimicrobial activity, gastrointestinal stress tolerance, adhesion and prebiotic substrate utilization. Building on these findings, to generate postbiotics, the efficiency of thermal, enzymatic, mechanical and radiation-based inactivation methods was evaluated in bacterial suspensions prepared in three dairy by-product matrices: milk permeate, sweet whey and sour whey. Complete inactivation of both strain cells was achieved by thermal treatment (3 min pasteurization), γ-irradiation (3 kGy), and combined lysozyme–pasteurization treatment, whereas other treatments showed partial and matrix-dependent effects. Matrix composition significantly influenced treatment efficacy, suggesting a protective role of food components used. These findings highlight the importance of combining genome mining for potential probiotic strain characterization with robust, matrix-adapted inactivation strategies for the development of stable postbiotic formulations. Full article