Search Results (114)

In the context of emergency management, individual or household decisions to engage in risk mitigation behaviors are widely recognized to be influenced by a benefit–cost perception (perceived applied value (PAV) vs. perceived economic value (PEV), respectively). To better understand how such decisions are made, we conducted a mail survey (N = 211) of households living in the Red River of the North Basin, North Dakota, in 2018. The survey is aimed at understanding the overall experience of households with flooding and their behavior toward advanced protective strategies against future floods by analyzing household PEV—their willingness to pay for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Satellite Enhanced Snowmelt Flood Prediction system. This paper presents a mediation model in which various predictors (flood risk, experience, flood knowledge, flood risk perception, flood preparedness, flood mitigation, and flood insurance) are analyzed in relation to the PAV of the new Satellite Enhanced Snowmelt Flood Predictions in the Red River of the North Basin, which, in turn, may shape the PEV of this product. We discuss the potential implications for both the emergency management research community and professionals regarding the application of advanced risk mitigation technologies to help protect and sustain communities across the country from floods and other natural disasters. This paper provides a greater understanding of the economic and social aspects of sustainability in the context of emergency management and community development. Full article

This study evaluates the current Spanish insurance framework for catastrophic flood risk, administered by the Consorcio de Compensación de Seguros (CCS), based on nationwide loss data reported by the CCS for the period 1996–2020. The analysis of historical claims data enables a clear differentiation between frequent, low-cost events and infrequent, high-impact catastrophes. While the CCS has fulfilled a critical role in post-disaster compensation, the findings highlight the parallel need for ex ante risk mitigation strategies. The study proposes a more efficient, two-tier risk coverage model. Events whose impacts can be managed through standard insurance mechanisms should be underwritten by private insurers using actuarially fair premiums. In contrast, events with catastrophic implications—due to their scale or financial impact—should be addressed through general solidarity mechanisms, centrally managed by the CCS. Such a risk segmentation would improve the financial sustainability of the system and create fiscal space for prevention-oriented incentives. The current design of the CCS scheme may generate moral hazard, as flood exposure is not explicitly priced into the premium structure. Empirical findings support a shift towards a more transparent, incentive-aligned model that combines collective risk sharing with individual risk responsibility—an essential balance for effective climate adaptation and long-term resilience. Full article

Hydrological extremes, particularly floods, are becoming prevalent in parts of Nigeria. During the 2022 rainy season, Nigeria experienced a devastating riverine flood with severe societal impacts. However, the principal factors contributing to riverine flooding in Nigeria remain debatable, necessitating data-driven and policy-relevant studies to quantify the primary causes of riverine floods in Nigeria. In this study, we applied remote sensing techniques and climate data to characterize the 2022 flood event in Nigeria by quantifying the flooded areas, the number of people affected per state, and riverine flood risk assessment. We investigated rainfall and soil moisture anomalies during the flood event and inferred the contribution of the opening of the Lagdo Dam, in Cameroon, to the severity of the flood event. Our results show that large parts of Cameroon and northern Nigeria experienced above-average rainfall during the 2022 rainy season, contributing to soil saturation. About 50,000 ha of land were flooded in Nigeria between July and August; however, following the opening of the Lagdo Dam in September, the flood extent spiked to 200,000 ha (i.e., about 300% increase), suggesting that excess water from the Lagdo Dam, coupled with inadequate drainage infrastructure, amplified the flood extent in Nigeria. Flooded areas were more extensive in northern Nigeria than in southern regions; however, due to denser settlements in flood-prone areas, Anambra State in southeastern Nigeria was the most affected in terms of people impacted. Therefore, besides rainfall changes and inadequate drainage infrastructures leading to the inundation of the major rivers in Nigeria and their tributaries, we also ranked poor town planning against the population density per square meter as a critical factor that amplifies the societal impacts of flooding in Nigeria. Finally, based on the 2022 conditions and the available pre-flood population data, an estimated number of 105,000 people are at critical risk of riverine flooding in Nigeria. Full article

In Europe, climate change has a big impact on agriculture, due to an increase in the frequency and severity of extreme weather events. Many and prolonged droughts, heatwaves, floods, and hailstorms cause major economic losses that affect crop quality and generate instability in supply chains. In this study, we analyse the evolution of extreme weather events across Europe starting from the 1980s. The economic losses caused by extreme events were divided into three categories: heatwaves, frost, and fires; floods; and storms. In order to identify the trend and any shifts of the trend of the extreme weather events, we calculated moving averages over different periods: 5, 10, 20, and 30 years. The moving average analysis shows how climate change has altered from causing isolated and temporary economic losses to generate a consistent upward trend in losses, with an increasingly significant impact in the short, medium, and long term. In the second part of this study, we conducted a correlation analysis between the economic losses caused by extreme weather events and variations in property insurance premiums (fire and other property damage—which includes crop insurance premiums) and we calculated correlation coefficients directly, with a one-year lag, and with a two-year lag. Thus, we analysed whether insurance markets respond immediately to incurred losses or whether, depending on climate trends, there are delays in premium adjustments. Full article

Climate-induced migration has emerged as a major concern in India and Bangladesh, due to their geographical vulnerability and socioeconomic conditions. Coastal areas, such as the Sundarbans and the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, face relentless threats due to rising sea levels, cyclones, and floods. These factors force millions to relocate, resulting in rural–urban transitions and cross-border movements that worsen urban challenges and socioeconomic vulnerabilities. For this, a systematic literature review of the Scopus database was undertaken using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A detailed review analysis of 65 papers was carried out. The study highlighted key climatic and non-climatic drivers of migration, including natural disasters, resource depletion, poverty, and poor governance. Despite existing adaptation strategies, such as early warning systems, micro-insurance, and climate-resilient practices, gaps remain in addressing long-term resilience and legal recognition for climate migrants. The research emphasizes the need for a holistic, multi-stakeholder approach, integrating adaptive infrastructure, sustainable livelihoods, and international cooperation. Recommendations include bridging research gaps, increasing community participation, and implementing global frameworks, like the Fund for Responding to Loss and Damage. Addressing climate migration through fair, inclusive measures is essential for building resilience and ensuring long-term development in the region. Full article

The present study examines perceptions and preparedness for flooding in Greece, a country increasingly impacted by natural hazards, particularly due to the effects of climate change. Despite the frequent occurrence of floods, public preparedness remains insufficient in many areas. Through a survey of 1282 respondents from various regions of Greece and using R statistical software to process and analyse data, the research explores the relationship between individual flood risk perceptions, prior experiences, and household-level preparedness. The findings show most participants are aware of governmental flood plans, but a significant gap exists between perceived flood risks and actual preparedness, especially regarding insurance and relocation willingness. The findings reveal that a majority of participants are aware of governmental flood management plans; however, outcomes concerning flood insurance and the willingness to relocate highlight the significant gap between perceived flood risks and actual preparedness efforts. Many respondents expressed dissatisfaction with current measures to address flood risks, leading to a diminished trust in the respective authorities. To enhance public awareness and engagement in flood preparedness, the study underscores the importance of localized risk communication strategies tailored to different demographic groups. Given the observed gap between awareness and actual preparedness, efforts should focus on bridging this disconnect through practical, community-driven initiatives. Recommendations include implementing targeted awareness campaigns, promoting trust in government efforts through transparent policies, and providing financial incentives such as subsidized flood insurance to encourage protective actions, and, additionally, fostering community involvement in disaster risk management, particularly in historically flood-prone regions, to strengthen the resilience against future flooding events. Full article

The frequent occurrence of flooding disasters threatens urban public safety and sustainable development, making enhancing urban ecological resilience crucial for flood prevention and disaster reduction. This study, focusing on the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration (YRD) in China, constructs an evaluation framework based on three subsystems: the hazard, disaster-formative environment, and exposure. Using the entropy weight method, Geographic Information Systems (GIS), along with spatial autocorrelation analysis, the spatial distribution and trend of resilience indices are obtained. Based on stepwise regression analysis, the factors influencing the resilience distribution are discussed. The results show an overall increase in resilience levels in the YRD urban agglomeration, reflecting improvements in the urban emergency response and recovery capabilities. However, significant differences exist between cities, with a trend of decreasing resilience from first-tier cities to surrounding areas. Among these, indicators such as per capita disposable income and the number of people covered by social insurance have a significant positive impact on resilience clustering, highlighting the key role of socioeconomic vitality in urban resilience. This study is of great significance for differentiated and scientific flood disaster management in urban agglomerations. Full article

Pluvial floods are increasingly affecting urban areas worldwide. Despite growing media attention and clear owner responsibility for reducing climate-related risk for buildings in Swedish national adaptation policy, adaptation action remains slow. Understanding how different property owner categories view and act on flood risks is key for developing better incentive structures and support for accelerating adaptation action. While tenant-owned housing is a common form of housing tenure in Sweden, studies are lacking. This study enhances understanding of pluvial flood risk and adaptation views and actions by tenant-owned housing associations in two Swedish cities. It is based on assessments of 69 apartment buildings within eleven tenant-owned associations and semi-structured interviews with their eleven chairpersons. The study indicates that tenant-owned associations grossly underestimate their flood risks and responsibilities for climate adaptation, even though many buildings studied are at significant risk, and most associations have been impacted by floods, some severely and recurrently. The patronization of flood risk and responsibility for adaptation is attributed to several factors: underestimating risks and consequences, devaluing the benefit of one’s own adaptation actions, lacking knowledge about climate adaptation measures for buildings, and (overly) generous insurance terms. The findings confirm low adaptation action among housing associations, even those with recurring floods, which is concerning given the strong reliance on property-owner adaptation in national adaptation policy. Full article

Flooding is one of the most severe natural hazards, causing widespread environmental, economic, and social disruption. If not managed properly, it can lead to human losses, property damage, and the destruction of livelihoods. The ability to rapidly assess such damages is crucial for emergency management. Near Real-Time (NRT) spatial information on flood-affected areas, obtained via remote sensing, is essential for disaster response, relief, urban and industrial reconstruction, insurance services, and damage assessment. Numerous flood mapping methods have been proposed, each with distinct strengths and limitations. Among the most widely used are machine learning algorithms and spectral indices, though these methods often face challenges, particularly in threshold selection for spectral indices and the sampling process for supervised classification. This study aims to develop an NRT flood mapping approach using supervised classification based on spectral features. The method automatically generates training samples through masks derived from spectral indices. More specifically, this study uses FWEI, NDVI, NDBI, and BSI indices to extract training samples for water/flood, vegetation, built-up areas, and soil, respectively. The Otsu thresholding technique is applied to create the spectral masks. Land cover classification is then performed using the Random Forest algorithm with the automatically generated training samples. The final flood map is obtained by subtracting the pre-flood water class from the post-flood image. The proposed method is implemented using optical satellite images from Sentinel-2, Landsat-8, and Landsat-9. The proposed method’s accuracy is rigorously evaluated and compared with those obtained from spectral indices and machine learning techniques. The suggested approach achieves the highest overall accuracy (OA) of 90.57% and a Kappa Coefficient (KC) of 0.89, surpassing SVM (OA: 90.04%, KC: 0.88), Decision Trees (OA: 88.64%, KC: 0.87), and spectral indices like AWEI (OA: 84.12%, KC: 0.82), FWEI (OA: 88.23%, KC: 0.86), NDWI (OA: 85.78%, KC: 0.84), and MNDWI (OA: 87.67%, KC: 0.85). These results underscore the superior accuracy and effectiveness of the proposed approach for NRT flood detection and monitoring using multi-sensor optical imagery. Full article

The 27th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Egypt made a historical decision on disaster loss and damage for vulnerable countries. Even though parties agreed to salvage vulnerable nations with generous support, a fundamental question remains as to the extent to which these vulnerable countries can accurately identify the most vulnerable communities/areas. In Sri Lanka, informal businesses are particularly vulnerable to floods, but their informal status has limited the extent to which they could receive flood protection, including disaster-resilient infrastructure developments. The main objective of this paper, therefore, is to identify challenges that informal businesses have experienced in dealing with flood disaster risks. In doing so, we analyzed government policies and laws that are related to business formalization and disaster management. We also conducted interviews with key informants to verify our data. Our analysis found that the Sri Lankan government requires informal business owners to follow complicated rules to register their businesses. For these owners, who are not highly educated, these processes and fear of high tax rates discouraged registering their businesses. The central government tends to prioritize flood mitigation actions for formalized business areas. Informal businesses are not usually covered by flood insurance and compensation. In conclusion, we emphasize the need to establish widely available legal and administrative support for informal businesses to register. Adopting business continuity plans (BCPs) and keeping standardized business records also help businesses minimize flood loss and damage. Full article

Increasing flood losses in the Gulf of Mexico related to development patterns and climate hazards pose serious threats to resilience and insurability. The purpose of this study is to understand how scale, social vulnerability, risk, and urban form relate to National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) policy coverage and flood exposure. Our multilevel models identify that flooding is significantly clustered by region and counties, especially shoreline counties. Our measures of risk suggest that the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) special flood hazard area (SFHA) underestimates risk and exposure when compared with the Flood Factor and that there is some compensation in terms of insurance coverage, suggesting a pattern of adverse selection. Older housing stock appears both less insured and less exposed, raising questions of whether current growth patterns are increasing risk independent of environmental change. Our models suggest that census tracts with higher percentages of black residents are less insured and more exposed, and a similar pattern exists for rural areas. Our results highlight the need to seek common solutions across the Gulf of Mexico, concentrating on the most flood-exposed counties, and that specific resilience strategies may be necessary to protect areas with socially vulnerable populations, especially in rural areas. Underlying challenges exist due to the spatial relationship between exposure and social vulnerability and the potential for adverse selection in insurance markets due to different measures of risk. Full article

Previous studies have utilized machine learning algorithms that incorporate topographic and geological characteristics to model flood susceptibility, resulting in comprehensive flood maps. This study introduces an innovative integration of geospatial artificial intelligence for hazard mapping to assess flood risks on road networks within Portuguese municipalities. Additionally, it incorporates OpenStreetMap’s road network data to study vulnerability, offering a descriptive statistical interpretation. Through spatial overlay techniques, road segments are evaluated for flood risk based on their proximity to identified hazard zones. This method facilitates the detailed mapping of flood-impacted road networks, providing essential insights for infrastructure planning, emergency preparedness, and mitigation strategies. The study emphasizes the importance of integrating geospatial analysis tools with open data to enhance the resilience of critical infrastructure against natural hazards. The resulting maps are instrumental for understanding the impact of floods on transportation infrastructures and aiding informed decision-making for policymakers, the insurance industry, and road infrastructure asset managers. Full article

Farmers in Kazakhstan face unreliable water resources. This includes water scarcity in the summer, high fluctuations in precipitation levels, and an increase in extreme weather events such as snow, rain, floods, and droughts. Wheat production is regulated and subsidized by the Kazakh government to strengthen food security. The proper monitoring of crop production is vital to government agencies, as well as insurance and banking structures. These organizations offer subsidies through different levels support. Some farmers already use farmland soil monitoring combined with adaptive combinations of different crops. These include winter–spring plowing crop programs. Winter wheat crops are generally more adaptive and may survive summer droughts. Kazakhstan is a large country with large plots of farmland, which are complicated to monitor. Therefore, it would be reasonable to adapt more efficient technologies and methodologies, such as remote sensing. This research work presents a method for identifying winter wheat crops in the foothills of South Kazakhstan by employing multi-temporal Sentinel-2 data. Here, the researchers adapted and applied a Plowed Land Index, derived from the Brightness Index. The methodology encompasses satellite data processing, the computation of Plowed Land Index values for the swift recognition of plowed fields and the demarcation of winter wheat crop sowing regions, along with a comparative analysis of the acquired data with ground surveys. Full article

Climate change has brought several natural disasters to South Africa in the form of floods, heat waves, and droughts. Neighbouring countries are also experiencing tropical cyclones, almost on a yearly basis. The insurance sector is faced with an increased level of climate change risk with individuals, corporates, and even the government approaching it for financial cover. However, with an increased level of competition in the insurance sector, (re)insurers must engage in massive product research and development. Therefore, this paper looks at the possibility of the insurance industry developing new products in the form of catastrophe resilience bonds (CAT R Bonds). A qualitative approach is used following content analysis of (re)insurers’ product development policies, marketing documents, company reports, and risk management reports as well as the Conference of Parties 27 and 28 resolution papers. The findings reveal that (re)insurers’ underwriting capacity, reinsurance protection, and innovative and creative product development increase because of CAT R Bonds. CAT R Bonds enhance the interaction between the capital market and money market, thereby giving speculative investors another investment option. Increased investment into new product development such as CAT R Bonds must continue in South Africa in pursuit of climate change resilience goals. Full article

Floods are consistently ranked as the most financially devastating natural disasters worldwide. Recent flood events in the Netherlands, Caribbean, and US have drawn attention to flood risks resulting from pluvial and fluvial sources. Despite shared experiences with flooding, these regions employ distinct approaches and flood management strategies due to differences in governance and scale—offering a three-site case study comparison. A key, yet often lacking, factor for flood risk and damage assessments at the parcel level is building elevation compared to flood elevation. First-floor elevations (FFEs) are a critical element in the vulnerability of a building flooding. US-based flood insurance policies require FFEs; however, data availability limitations exist. Drone-based FFEs were measured in all locations to assess the flood vulnerabilities of structures. Flood vulnerability profiles revealed 64% of buildings were vulnerable to a form of inundation, with 40% belonging to “moderate” or “major” inundation, and inundation elevation means (IEMs) of −0.55 m, 0.19 m, and 0.71 m within the US, Netherlands, and Puerto Rico sites, respectively. Spatial statistics revealed FFEs were more responsible for flood vulnerabilities in the US site while topography was more responsible in the Netherlands and Puerto Rico sites. Additional findings in the Puerto Rico site reveal FFEs and next highest floor elevations (NHFEs) vulnerable to future sea level rise (SLR) flood elevations. The findings within the Netherlands provide support for developing novel multi-layered flood risk reduction strategies that include building elevation. We discuss future work recommendations and how the different sites could benefit significantly from strengthening FFE requirements. Full article