Search Results (282)

Pomegranate peel is a food industry waste rich in polyphenols. To date, its effect in alleviating fatigue remains unclear. This study aimed to characterize the chemical composition of pomegranate peel polyphenols (PPPs), evaluate its antioxidant and anti-fatigue capacities, and investigate the underlying mechanism. In the current study, twenty main compounds, primarily flavonoids, phenolic acids, and anthocyanins, were identified from PPPs using LC-MS/MS. In H₂O₂-induced HepG2 cells, PPPs promoted cellular repair and reduced the production of intracellular malondialdehyde (MDA) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) via enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px). In the endurance swimming-induced fatigue mice model, PPPs prolonged mice exhaustion times, reduced accumulation of fatigue-related metabolites (BUN, LA, BA, LDH and CK), and alleviated liver and muscle tissue damage. Mechanistically, PPPs mitigated oxidative stress via activation of the Keap1/Nrf2 pathway, leading to increased expression of hemeoxygenase-1 (HO-1) and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1). Furthermore, PPPs stimulated energy metabolism by activating the AMPK/PGC-1α/PPAR-α pathway, promoting mitochondrial biogenesis, enhancing glycogen storage, increasing ATPase activity (Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase, Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase, and T-ATPase) and accelerating lipid β-oxidation. These findings suggest that PPPs is a promising anti-fatigue supplement and could be further utilized in the nutritional industry. Full article

Background: This study aimed to investigate the extent and time course of peripheral neuromuscular fatigue of the knee extensors following different concurrent training protocols in recreationally active men. Methods: In a randomized, counterbalanced, crossover design, ten participants completed one exercise session of three concurrent exercise protocols in consecutive weeks and in similar resting conditions: traditional concurrent training (TCT), sprint interval training (SIT), and high-intensity resistance circuit training (HRC). Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and electrically evoked tetanic force of the knee extensors were assessed before, immediately after, and at 24 and 48 h following each exercise session. Linear mixed models were used to examine the differences among exercise modalities and time points. Results: No significant changes were found in MVIC force following HRC and TCT at any time point (p > 0.05), while significant declines were observed post-exercise (p = 0.015), 24 h (p = 0.001) and at 48 h (p = 0.003) after SIT. Moreover, MVIC force was significantly lower for SIT than HRC at 48 h (p = 0.001). Tetanic force significantly declined in SIT from pre-exercise to post-exercise (p = 0.034), with significant differences when compared to HRC (p = 0.003) and TCT (p = 0.003). HRC and TCT induced no knee extensor fatigue, contrary to a single session of SIT. Conclusions: Peripheral fatigue seemed to prevail following SIT in comparison with HRC and TCT, as seen by the decreased tetanic force in the former only. From an applied perspective, practitioners should carefully plan training activities to be performed the days following a SIT session, as force-generating capacity may be impaired for up to 48 h. Full article

Background: Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries are increasing in young athletes and many are related to non-contact, spontaneous mechanical fatigue-related ruptures. The objective of this narrative review is to identify and synthesize the anatomical, histological, physiological, and biomechanical basis of extracellular matrix (ECM) factors that contribute to ACL injuries and suggest ways to decrease their occurrence. Methods: The primary investigator searched PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar database titles and abstracts using search phrases with Boolean operators: “anterior cruciate ligament” OR “ACL”, OR “cranial cruciate ligament” AND “disease”; “anterior cruciate ligament” OR “ACL”, OR “cranial cruciate ligament” AND “spontaneous rupture” OR “non-contact injury”; and “anterior cruciate ligament” OR ACL, OR cranial cruciate ligament” AND “crosslink”, “collagen” OR “extracellular matrix”; and “anterior cruciate ligament” OR “ACL”, OR “cranial cruciate ligament” AND “microtrauma”, OR “sudden” OR “fatigue failure”. The primary investigator and a sports orthopedic surgeon reviewed titles and abstracts of diverse evidence sources. From these identified sources, the study team performed full text reviews, selected contributing articles, performed Strength of Recommendation Taxonomy (SORT) grading, and synthesized the following themes: A Hostile Environment, ACL Strain, and Poor Nutrient Delivery; Accumulative ACL Microtrauma and Mechanical Failure; The ACL Differs From Other Ligaments; Collagen, the ECM, and ACL Mechanobiology; Crimps and ACL ECM Stretch; Crosslinks Improve ECM Mechanical Properties; The Delicate Collagen Synthesis and Degradation Balance; Exercise Training and the ACL; Can Nutraceuticals Help Restore the Balance?; Training Induced ACL Hypoxia; Estrogen and the Female Athlete; Counting Pitches or Counting Collagen Fiber Ruptures; and Restoring A Positive Anabolic–Catabolic Collagen Balance. Results: Regular exercise training within a physiologically safe loading range is vital to ACL ECM health. However, low or moderate evidence suggested that poor blood supply, slow metabolism, and a hypoxic environment may unbalance anabolic and catabolic homeostasis. Active rest and recovery concepts that prevent youth baseball shoulder and elbow injuries may help prevent non-contact ACL injuries. Conclusions: More prescriptive active rest and recovery intervals and neuromuscular control training may restore the anabolic–catabolic balance that increases mature crosslink density and improves ACL ECM strength. Confirmatory studies are needed to better establish therapeutic intervention mode(s), timing, dosage, and frequency optimization. Full article

High-intensity or repetitive exercise induces metabolic stress and neuromuscular fatigue in skeletal muscle. Using a within-subjects repeated-measures crossover design, eight male amateur swimmers completed five experimental sessions at one-week intervals. Following an isokinetic fatigue protocol, five recovery interventions were applied in a randomized order: control (NT), foam roller (FR), vibration foam roller (VFR), and whole-body vibration at 12 Hz (WBV-12) and 20 Hz (WBV-20). The isokinetic fatigue protocol produced a significant reduction in bilateral extensor peak torque (229.2 ± 37.8%BW to 189.8 ± 27.5%BW; t(7) = 4.19, p = 0.004, d = 1.48), confirming successful fatigue induction. Outcome measures included visual analog scale (VAS) scores, blood lactate concentration, and knee extensor/flexor peak torque (%BW) assessed at three time points. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (intervention × time) revealed significant main effects of recovery methods at the post-recovery time point for VAS scores (F(4,28) = 5.98, p = 0.001, η²g = 0.248), blood lactate (F(4,28) = 5.12, p = 0.003, η²g = 0.226), and isokinetic peak torque (F(4,28) = 10.75, p < 0.001, η²g = 0.226). Post hoc Bonferroni analysis indicated that VFR and WBV-20 produced significantly higher lactate recovery rates than NT. Active recovery interventions produced lower perceived fatigue scores and greater lactate reductions than passive rest; however, individual Bonferroni pairwise comparisons for VAS and blood lactate did not reach adjusted significance, and these findings should be considered preliminary. WBV-20 demonstrated statistically confirmed superiority in isokinetic muscle function recovery (Bonferroni p < 0.05 vs. NT, FR, and VFR), suggesting its potential as an effective post-exercise recovery strategy for neuromuscular restoration. Full article

Background/Objective: Mental fatigue (MF) significantly impairs psychomotor performance in dynamic sports; however, its specific impact on closed-skill precision-demanding tasks remains underexplored. This study investigated the acute effects of experimentally induced MF exposure on psychophysiological responses, mood states, and archery shooting performance. Methods: Fifteen well-trained male compound-bow archers participated in a randomized crossover study. Participants completed an MF condition (30 min modified Stroop task) and a control condition (CON; passive viewing of a neutral documentary), separated by a 72 h washout period. Continuous heart rate (HR), archery shooting accuracy, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE), rating scale of mental effort (RSME), state anxiety (VAS-A), mood states, and exercise enjoyment scale (EES) were assessed. Results: The Stroop task successfully induced subjective MF. Consequently, shooting accuracy significantly deteriorated in the MF condition compared to that in the CON condition (p < 0.001; g = 0.731). While HR and VAS-A remained consistent across conditions, the MF condition elicited a significant increase in RPE (p = 0.007; g = 0.836) and RSME (p = 0.010; g = 0.794). Furthermore, MF significantly increased feelings of anger and fatigue while drastically reducing PACES (p < 0.001; g = 1.530). Conclusions: Acute MF significantly degrades fine motor accuracy in precision sports. The pronounced dissociation between elevated RPE and stable peripheral physiological strain suggests that performance decline is driven by top-down cognitive burden rather than physiological limitations. Therefore, systematic monitoring of cognitive load is crucial for optimizing performance in precision sports. Full article

Objectives: This study aims to investigate the correlations between changes in skin temperature and surface electromyography (sEMG) parameters during fatigue induced by varying exercise intensities. The study uses infrared thermal imaging and sEMG to explore whether skin temperature fluctuations can indicate muscle fatigue states. Methods: Two static contraction fatigue tests were administered on the right biceps brachii muscle group of 30 healthy male subjects at 30% and 70% MVC (Maximum Voluntary Contraction) intensity levels. Tests were separated by a 5-day interval and continued until complete fatigue was achieved. The left arm served as a control and was not subjected to any load. Infrared thermal imaging was employed to record continuous skin temperature, capturing data from 120 s pre-exercise to 480 s post-exercise commencement at ten frames per second. Concurrently, sEMG parameters (RMS—Root Mean Square, MPF—Mean Power Frequency, and MF—Median Frequency) were synchronously collected at a sampling frequency of 1 kHz. Results: During 70% MVC exercise, skin temperature on the exercised arm consistently decreased, reaching its nadir by the end of the exercise, with a statistically significant divergence from the baseline (p < 0.05). At 30% MVC, skin temperature initially slightly declined before gradually increasing. The control arm’s temperature significantly declined across exercise intensities and during recovery. A significant temporal correlation was observed between skin temperature and sEMG parameters. Conclusions: 1. Variability in skin temperature patterns during muscular fatigue is contingent on the level of exercise intensity. 2. The strong correlation between skin temperature and sEMG parameters suggests that infrared thermal imaging is a promising, rapid technique for monitoring exercise-induced muscle fatigue. Full article

Introduction: Circuit resistance training is widely used to enhance physical performance. However, the acute-performance- and fatigue-related effects of exercise order and volume in circuit training, particularly between upper and lower limbs, remain unclear. Objectives: This study examined acute velocity-based responses to different exercise orders and volumes during full-body circuit resistance training. Methods: Thirty resistance-trained adults completed four circuit protocols: alternating exercises with maximal repetitions per exercise (A1), grouped exercises with maximal repetitions per exercise (G1), alternating exercises with 50% of maximal repetitions in the first round (A2), and grouped exercises with 50% of maximal repetitions in the first round (G2). Mean propulsive velocity (MPV) in the bench press and squat at 60% 1RM was assessed before and after each circuit. Results: A significant main effect of Time was observed for both bench press and squat MPV (p < 0.001), with no Intervention × Time interactions. Alternating configurations showed larger effect sizes, indicating greater velocity loss. Under equal volume, upper limbs exhibited greater performance decline than lower limbs. Conclusions: Although exercise order did not result in statistically significant differences, alternating configurations induced a greater magnitude of fatigue-related performance decline than grouped configurations, particularly in upper-body exercises. Full article

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the acute effects of intermittent high-intensity badminton court exercise on cardiac autonomic modulation in male non-elite badminton players. Methods: This study employed a single-arm, repeated-measures experimental design, recruiting 25 healthy male collegiate badminton players. Participants completed five sets of high-intensity intermittent court tests until exhaustion, followed by calculation of stress index (SI), time-domain (RMSSD and SDNN), and frequency-domain (LF, HF, and LF/HF ratio) parameters at rest using a certified heart rate variability (HRV) analyzer. Repeated-measures ANOVA and effect size (partial η² and Hedges’ g) were used to assess changes and recovery trends of HRV parameters across time points: pre-test, immediate, 15 min, 24 h, and 48 h post-exercise. Results: (1) Stress index: The overall temporal trend showed statistical significance (p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.236, large effect size). Compared to pre-test, immediate and 15 min post-exercise increases were 8.24 (95% CI: 0.63–15.85) and 9.84 (95% CI: 3.07–16.61) respectively, with Hedges’ g values of 0.77 and 0.99 (p < 0.001, large effect sizes). Values returned to pre-test levels at 24 and 48 h with no significant differences (p > 0.05). (2) Time-domain parameters: The overall temporal trend was statistically significant (p < 0.001, partial η² = 0.553 for RMSSD and 0.586 for SDNN, both large effect sizes). Immediate post-exercise decreases in RMSSD and SDNN were 35.44 (95% CI: 21.95, 48.93) and 48.44 (95% CI: 32.49, 64.38) respectively, with Hedges’ g values of 2.31 and 2.78 (p < 0.001, large effect sizes). At 15 min, decreases were 31.64 (17.85, 45.42) and 41.48 (26.23, 56.72) respectively, with Hedges’ g values of 1.99 and 2.25 (p < 0.001, large effect sizes). Values returned to pre-test levels at 24 and 48 h with no significant differences (p > 0.05). (3) Frequency-domain parameters: Compared to pre-test, differences in LF, HF, and LF/HF were not statistically significant at any time point (all p > 0.05). Conclusions: Following high-intensity exercise leading to peripheral fatigue, cardiac autonomic function demonstrates a “suppression–recovery” dynamic pattern: cardiac stress levels increase significantly within 15 min post-exercise, with decreased overall HRV regulatory capacity and strong inhibition of parasympathetic activity; HRV status may return to baseline levels after 24 h. However, the frequency-domain indices of HRV showed no significant changes in response to the acute effects of high-intensity exercise. Full article

Long COVID is associated with persistent fatigue, exercise intolerance, and microcirculatory dysfunction. Altered red blood cell (RBC) rheology, including impaired deformability and increased aggregation, may contribute to these symptoms, yet the effects of exercise interventions remain unclear. This longitudinal pilot study tested whether an individualized, symptom-responsive exercise program improves RBC rheology in Long COVID. A total of 170 (110 f/60 m) participants entered a five-phase training protocol; 15 completed all phases and formed a predefined finisher subgroup. RBC aggregation and deformability, hematological parameters, and coagulation- and iron-related markers were assessed across phases; RBC morphology was additionally analyzed in finishers at baseline and completion. In the total cohort, aggregation indices decreased across training phases, accompanied by prolonged aggregation half-time, while hematological, coagulation, and iron markers remained largely unchanged. The deformability changes were not uniform in the full cohort; however, finishers showed a deformability shift after completion. Importantly, morphologically abnormal RBC decreased in finishers, and these changes correlated with deformability, suggesting that improved rheology is linked to reduced RBC abnormalities. Prospectively, larger controlled studies are needed to confirm these results and to evaluate whether exercise-induced rheological improvements translate into functional and symptomatic benefits. Full article

Mental fatigue is a psychobiological state induced by sustained effortful cognitive efforts during daily life activities. Yet research efforts in exercise science have focused primarily on performance implications for athletes to the point of exclusion of vulnerable populations for which mental fatigue may be a health risk. This narrative review aims to clarify the role of mental fatigue on population health. Evidence suggest mental fatigue predisposes people to acute events related to temporary performance impairments (e.g., falls), and chronic diseases related to sedentarism (e.g., stroke, diabetes), as mental fatigue de-motivates people to engage in physical activity. Major risks are experienced by people with higher fatigability (i.e., people for whom mental fatigue is induced by less effortful tasks) and lower performance capacity. However, the few available information about moderators of fatigability and the lack of a normative protocol to assess mental fatigue are limiting the prevention of mental fatigue. Several strategies are used to counter mental fatigue acutely (e.g., caffeine ingestion); however, enduring countermeasures intended to alter psychobiological sequelae of mental fatigue, such as Brain Endurance and other trainings, are the only proved long-term countermeasures for mental fatigue. Yet the effectiveness of these interventions should be tested in populations with major risk for mental fatigue. We present a model identifying putative pathways through which mental fatigue may contribute to health risks to guide future investigations seeking to (a) evaluate the role of mental fatigue as a threat to health and well-being and (b) design interventions to mitigate the effects of mental fatigue in vulnerable populations. Full article

This investigation examined whether mirror visual feedback modulates crossover fatigue magnitude during unilateral handgrip exertion and whether efficacy demonstrates age-dependent and muscle-group-specific characteristics. Thirty-three participants stratified by developmental stage (adults: n = 17, 24.64 ± 5.38 years; children: n = 16, 11.87 ± 0.79 years) completed a randomized controlled crossover protocol incorporating three visual feedback conditions: mirror reflection of the exercised limb, occluded vision (no-mirror), and passive rest control. Participants performed unilateral dominant handgrip fatigue induction (20 × 6 s maximal voluntary isometric contractions) while bilateral force production was quantified pre-intervention and post-intervention across handgrip, elbow flexion, and elbow extension domains. Linear mixed-effects models with participant-specific random intercepts and slopes quantified Condition × Time × Limb interactions. In the non-exercised contralateral limb, linear mixed-effects models demonstrated that under the mirror condition, non-dominant handgrip force was maintained at rest-equivalent levels relative to control (+0.02 kg, 95% CI [−1.15, +1.17], p = 0.987, dz =+ 0.003), whereas vision occlusion induced significant crossover fatigue (−3.37 kg [−4.40, −2.35], p < 0.001, dz =− 1.16). All contrasts represent within-subject difference-of-differences in non-dominant limb change score (Post − Pre) extracted from the full factorial LMM via emmeans within the Limb = Non-dominant stratum pooled across age groups. The mirror versus no-mirror comparison yielded +3.38 kg [+2.43, +4.34], p < 0.001, dz =+ 1.26. Age-stratified analyses confirmed comparable effect magnitudes (adults: dz =+ 1.40; children: dz =+ 1.33). Muscle-group specificity emerged for handgrip but not elbow flexion (p = 0.068) or extension (p = 0.156). Age Group × Condition × Time × Limb interactions were non-significant (all p > 0.16), providing no evidence of age moderation within the tested developmental range. Mirror visual feedback constitutes an effective countermeasure against crossover fatigue in distal upper limb musculature. The magnitude of mirror-induced attenuation did not differ between children (aged 10–13 years) and adults within our sample, with no statistically detectable age moderation within the tested developmental range; formal equivalence testing was not conducted. Effects demonstrated anatomical selectivity, favoring hand musculature over proximal elbow musculature. Full article

Background: Upper-limb performance in handball depends on accurate shoulder sensorimotor control under high loads and fatigue. This study examined between-cohort differences associated with concentric versus eccentric exercise-induced fatigue in shoulder proprioception, kinesthesia, functional stability, and isometric force output in professional male handball players. Methods: This was a retrospective, quasi-experimental (non-randomized) between-cohort comparison of two previously collected cohorts who completed either a concentric (n = 46) or eccentric (n = 33) fatigue protocol, with pre- and post-fatigue assessments of joint repositioning sense (absolute angular error, AAE), threshold to detection of passive movement (TTDPM), Y Balance Test Upper Quarter (YBT-UQ), and the Athletic Shoulder (ASH) test. Results: Fatigue significantly increased AAE across all tested angles (Time: all p < 0.001), with a contraction-specific effect at end-range internal rotation (IR45°), where AAE increased more after concentric than eccentric fatigue (Time × Fatigue Type: p = 0.017; Δ = +1.34° (+61.8%) vs. +0.20° (+7.4%)). TTDPM increased after fatigue (p = 0.001) with no interaction (p = 0.968). YBT-UQ performance decreased after fatigue for all dominant-limb outcomes and for non-dominant inferolateral, superolateral, and composite scores (all p ≤ 0.018), but not for non-dominant anteromedial reach (p = 0.986); no Time × Fatigue Type interactions were detected for YBT-UQ outcomes (all p > 0.05). ASH force output decreased across all positions and both limbs (all p ≤ 0.002), with the dominant-limb Y position showing a greater decline following eccentric fatigue (Time × Fatigue Type: p = 0.030; e.g., ASH Y dominant Δ = −0.49 (−4.6%) vs. −1.43 N·kg⁻¹ (−13.3%)). Conclusions: Exercise-induced fatigue impairs shoulder sensorimotor function and upper-limb performance in handball. Contraction-mode differences were small and task-specific in this between-cohort comparison, emerging primarily at end-range proprioception and selected isometric strength positions. These findings may inform the design of training programs that emphasize fatigue-resistant sensorimotor control and end-range strength, while causal inferences regarding contraction mode are not warranted given the non-randomized design. Full article

Objectives: While several physiological functions of milt peptides have been discovered, the structural characteristics of Theragra chalcogramma milt peptides (TMP) and their anti-fatigue mechanisms remain unclear. Methods: TMP was obtained by hydrolysis via flavor enzyme and alkaline protease, and its structural characteristics were analyzed. A mice model of exercise-induced fatigue was established. The anti-fatigue effect of TMP was evaluated by determining the main biochemical indices in the serum, liver, and skeletal muscle of mice. Additionally, qPCR analysis was conducted to investigate its regulatory effects on relevant energy metabolism pathways. Results: TMP contained 18.2% branched-chain amino acids, with those with molecular weights below 1000 Da accounting for 91.6%. A total of 154 characteristic peptides, such as VPFPR and LPPGR, were identified from TMP, among which 64% of the peptides contained glutamic acid, arginine, or aspartic acid. Molecular docking of potential bioactive peptides to AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) revealed binding energies from −9.1 to −5.5 kcal/mol. The exhaustive swimming test showed that oral administration of TMP prolonged the swimming duration. In the fatigue murine model, TMP reduced blood urea nitrogen and blood lactic acid levels while enhancing the content of muscle glycogen. Meanwhile, TMP significantly increased the activity of glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase and reduced the accumulation of malondialdehyde, demonstrating antioxidant properties. Additionally, TMP significantly decreased creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase extravasation, thereby protecting muscle tissue, as corroborated by immunohistochemical analyses. Mechanistically, TMP upregulated AMPK and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression, promoting mitochondrial biogenesis via the AMPK/PGC-1α pathway. Conclusions: These findings suggest TMP has potential as a dietary supplement for alleviating physical fatigue. Full article

Objective: The purpose of this research is to examine how motivational music immediately impacts the brain’s functional connectivity patterns in male athletes following a single session of intense endurance exercise, utilizing resting-state electroencephalography (EEG) and brain network analysis methods. Methods: The study involved 34 healthy male athletes who were tasked with performing incremental cycling exercises until exhaustion, both with and without music. Their resting-state EEG was recorded before and after the exercise. Brain functional networks were analyzed in the theta, alpha, and beta frequency bands based on changes in phase locking value (PLV). Specifically, the study examined the central executive network (CEN), default mode network (DMN), salience network (SN), sensorimotor network (SMN), and dorsal attention network (DAN), assessing their topological properties using graph theory methods. Results: Music significantly prolonged the time to exhaustion. Across frequency bands, the music condition exhibited higher global and local efficiency compared with the no-music condition. Following exhaustion without music, beta-band connectivity significantly increased, suggesting compensatory hyper-synchronization under fatigue. In contrast, music led to reduced alpha- and beta-band global connectivity post-exercise, accompanied by selective strengthening of functionally relevant couplings, particularly between SMN and CEN, and enhanced DAN–DMN coordination. Additionally, music prevented maladaptive connectivity shifts observed under fatigue, including excessive SN–CEN coupling. Conclusions: Exhaustive exercise without music induces widespread beta-band hyper-connectivity, reflecting increased neural cost under central fatigue. Music, however, promotes a more efficient and selectively integrated network configuration, supporting the neural efficiency hypothesis. These findings provide neurophysiological evidence that music optimizes large-scale brain network organization under physical stress, thereby contributing to enhanced endurance performance. Full article

Lavender essential oil (LEO) is commonly used in aromatherapy for stress reduction, relaxation and recovery from (muscle) fatigue. However, molecular mechanisms underlying its potential physiological effects on the skeletal muscle remain unclear. This study investigates whether LEO affects the intracellular signaling pathways in skeletal muscle cells that respond to physical activity. Prior to the experiment, GC-MS analysis confirmed linalyl acetate and linalool as the main components of LEO used in this study. Transdermal permeability was assessed using a reconstructed human epidermis model, which showed that linalool permeated the epidermal layer, while linalyl acetate showed minimal permeation. Following this confirmation, the differentiated C2C12 myotubes were treated with LEO in an in vitro muscle contraction model using electrical pulse stimulation (EPS). LEO significantly increased Interleukin 6 (IL-6) mRNA expression under EPS, and DNA whole-genome microarray analysis showed that LEO induced different gene expression profiles depending on the contraction state of the muscle cells. These results provide the first molecular evidence that LEO modulates skeletal muscle gene networks in a stimulation-dependent manner and may indicate its potential use as an aid to recovery (from fatigue) after exercise. Notably, the skin permeation of LEO components showed a saturation trend at concentrations above 5%, suggesting the presence of an optimal concentration range for topical application in sports aromatherapy. Full article