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The retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) is a long-lived, highly polarised epithelial monolayer that performs essential functions in retinal homeostasis, including outer blood–retina barrier maintenance, visual cycle activity, metabolic exchange, phagocytic clearance of photoreceptor outer segments, and regulation of oxidative and immune balance. Because RPE cells persist for decades under conditions of sustained oxidative, metabolic, and phagocytic stress, this tissue provides a valuable model for examining how long-lived post-mitotic cells preserve function over time and how age-related dysfunction emerges when that balance weakens. Although much of the current literature on RPE ageing has been shaped by age-related macular degeneration (AMD), age-dependent change in the RPE should not be understood solely as a preclinical stage of disease. Rather, the ageing RPE offers a broader framework for studying cellular maintenance under chronic physiological load. In this review, we synthesise current evidence on RPE ageing across four interrelated domains: structural remodelling, mitochondrial and metabolic imbalance, proteostatic and lysosomal burden, and chronic inflammatory dysregulation. Across these processes, ageing in the RPE is expressed less as widespread cell loss than as progressive decline in cellular organisation, buffering capacity, and functional precision. Structural irregularity, altered mitochondrial regulation, incomplete degradative clearance, and persistent low-grade inflammatory signalling together reduce the ability of the RPE to maintain long-term homeostasis and increase vulnerability to age-related retinal dysfunction. We further argue that ageing in the RPE is best understood not as abrupt failure of isolated pathways, but as gradual loss of system coherence among interacting homeostatic systems that remain active while operating under increasing constraint. This view helps integrate diverse cellular and molecular findings and highlights the RPE as an informative model for understanding ageing in long-lived post-mitotic tissues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms in Aging)

19 pages, 6159 KB

Open AccessArticle

Induced Electric Field Processing of Watermelon Juice: Effects on Microbial Inactivation, Physicochemical Stability, and Flavor Retention During Refrigerated Storage

by Yang Liu, Li-Li Li, Meng-Yao Fan, Zhi-Jing Ni, Run-Hui Ma, Zhao-Jun Wei and Kiran Thakur

Foods 2026, 15(8), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15081426 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Watermelon juice is a nutritious yet highly perishable beverage. Conventional thermal pasteurization ensures safety but degrades heat-sensitive nutrients, color, and flavor. Induced electric field (IEF) is an emerging technology that inactivates microorganisms while better preserving quality. However, its effects on the comprehensive quality retention of watermelon juice during storage remain underexplored. This study investigated the efficacy of IEF treatment on the microbial inactivation and quality preservation of watermelon juice during 25 days of storage at 4 °C. Freshly extracted watermelon juice was subjected to low-temperature IEF at 65 °C (IEF1) for 101 s and 60 °C (IEF2) for 88 s, with conventional pasteurization (65 °C, 30 min) as a control. The results showed that no colonies were detected in the IEF2 group throughout the 25-day storage period. Both IEF treatment and pasteurization effectively inhibited juice acidification. Soluble solids content and electrical conductivity remained stable under refrigeration, and the IEF group showed slower and more controllable acidity on day 25. Notably, the IEF1 group retained the highest lycopene content at the end of storage, while the IEF2 group maintained the highest total phenolic content (TPC). Furthermore, IEF treatment effectively mitigated color deterioration and preserved carbohydrate stability during refrigeration. Flavor analysis revealed that the taste profile of the IEF2 group at the initial storage stage closely resembled that of fresh watermelon juice. Over the 25-day period, the relative content of key volatile compounds characteristic of fresh watermelon decreased by only 3.64% in the IEF2 group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Preservation Techniques of Fruits and Vegetables or Their Processed Products: Strategies for Safety and Quality Maintenance)

25 pages, 3310 KB

Open AccessReview

Micropropagation, Somatic Embryogenesis, and Haploid Induction in Passiflora: Advances, Biological Constraints, and Breeding Prospects

by Mohammad Gul Arabzai, Ting Wu, Nazir Khan Mohammadi, Niaz Mohammad Inqilabi, Omotola Adebayo Olunuga, Yuan Qin and Lulu Wang

Horticulturae 2026, 12(4), 497; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae12040497 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

The genus Passiflora includes species important for fruit production, ornamental value, and breeding programs. Conventional methods, such as seed propagation and vegetative cuttings, face challenges like genetic heterogeneity, pathogen transmission, and long juvenile phases, limiting large-scale cultivation and breeding efficiency. In vitro culture technologies are essential for clonal propagation, germplasm conservation, and improving Passiflora species using biotechnology. This review critically evaluates current progress in micropropagation and regeneration systems in Passiflora spp. and examines the prospects of haploid and doubled haploid technologies as future breeding tools. Unlike previous reviews, which primarily focus on summarizing tissue culture protocols, this study integrates regeneration biology, developmental constraints, and emerging biotechnological approaches to provide a broader framework for research. Additionally, this review offers a comparative analysis of various regeneration systems across Passiflora species and highlights the challenges of genotype-dependent methods. By synthesizing recent advancements in haploid technology, it provides new insights into the potential for accelerating breeding programs in Passiflora, a field where robust protocols are still lacking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micropropagation and Cultivation of Ornamental Species)

26 pages, 435 KB

Open AccessReview

Exploring the Senotherapeutic Potential of Polyphenols in Aging and Disease: A Literature Review

by Luna Braučič Mitrovic and Khrystyna O. Semen

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(8), 3651; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27083651 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Aging is associated with an increased risk of developing many age-related diseases (ARDs), which are of major global health concern. In recent years, cellular senescence, characterized by cell cycle arrest and development of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), has emerged as a key mechanism of aging and ARDs and has been increasingly explored as a promising therapeutic target. Among dietary bioactive ingredients, fisetin and quercetin have gained attention because of their potential to act as senolytics and senomorphics. This narrative literature review summarizes existing evidence exploring the potential of fisetin and quercetin to modulate senescence and SASP biomarkers in animal models of aging and progeria, as well as in interventional studies involving human subjects with geriatric syndromes and/or various ARDs. It also provides a brief overview of the molecular mechanisms of senescence and attempts to identify potential drivers and barriers for the clinical translation of those nutrients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nutraceuticals and Healthy Aging: Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Perspectives)

31 pages, 965 KB

Open AccessArticle

Construction and Validation of a 5P–ESG Composite Index for Sustainable Corporate Governance and Financial Analysis in Emerging Markets: Evidence from the MSCI COLCAP

by Alejandro Acevedo Amorocho, Ángel Acevedo-Duque, José Gerardo De la Vega Meneses, Freddy Alonso Aguillón Duarte and Elena Cachicatari-Vargas

Sustainability 2026, 18(8), 4065; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18084065 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

This study develops and validates the 5P–ESG Composite Index as a finance-oriented framework for assessing firm-level sustainable-financial performance in emerging markets. It addresses a persistent limitation in ESG measurement, namely the lack of conceptually integrated and decision-useful metrics capable of incorporating not only environmental, social, and governance dimensions, but also institutional and relational dimensions that are especially relevant in heterogeneous emerging-market settings. Conceptually, the proposed framework is grounded in the 2030 Agenda’s 5Ps (People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace, and Partnerships) and extends conventional ESG approaches by explicitly incorporating Peace and Partnerships into firm-level assessment. Methodologically, the index is constructed through sequential indicator selection, data cleansing, winsorization, normalization, pillar-level scoring, and PCA-based endogenous weighting, while its statistical robustness is assessed through internal consistency tests and factorability diagnostics. Empirically, the framework is applied to issuers in the MSCI COLCAP universe, where it proves operationally feasible and suitable for classifying firms into relative performance groups. In addition, a benchmark comparison against a conventional ESG-3 scheme shows that the broader 5P architecture can modify issuer rankings and tercile classification. Overall, the findings support the proposed index as a transparent, auditable, and context-sensitive tool for investors and decision-makers seeking more comprehensive sustainability metrics in emerging markets. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Governance: ESG Practices in the Modern Corporation)

29 pages, 7853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Governance, Energy Systems, and Carbon Efficiency: A Time–Frequency Analysis of GCC and Emerging Economies

by Nagwa Amin Abdelkawy and Angham Ben Brayek

Sustainability 2026, 18(8), 4062; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18084062 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Governance is often treated as a slow-moving background condition in energy transition research, even though institutional reform and implementation capacity shape outcomes over long horizons. This study adopts a time–frequency perspective to examine how institutional quality aligns with energy-system and carbon-efficiency transition dynamics using multivariate wavelet coherence. Unlike mean-based regression approaches, the multivariate design allows assessment of whether governance aligns with carbon efficiency through three distinct systems—external integration, energy transition with resource rents, and governance coherence—using carbon intensity of GDP (CIGDP) as a common anchor. Using annual data for a comparative sample of GCC economies and non-GCC emerging economies over the period 1996–2022, we examine the evolution of coherence among governance indicators, energy use, renewable energy consumption, external economic exposure, and carbon efficiency, with emissions-related measures explicitly incorporated into the wavelet systems. Environmental implications are therefore interpreted only for systems that directly include carbon-efficiency indicators. The results indicate that institutional quality is most strongly associated with transition dynamics at low frequencies, pointing to persistent long-run alignment rather than short-run adjustment. Across GCC economies, low-frequency coherence is stronger and more continuous, while medium-term weakening appears as time-specific episodes that do not disrupt the underlying long-run structure. In non-GCC emerging economies, long-run coherence remains evident but is less continuous, and medium-horizon fragmentation is more frequent and more prolonged. At high frequencies, coherence is generally weak across countries, suggesting that short-run variation appears more closely associated with external shocks and market conditions than with structural or institutional alignment. Overall, the findings position institutional quality as a stabilising and conditioning factor in energy and carbon-efficiency transitions, operating primarily through long-run coherence and resilience. Systematic differences across governance regimes reflect variation in the continuity and stability of alignment across time horizons, rather than differences in the relevance of governance itself. Full article

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23 pages, 15269 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Local Tissue Repair to Fibrosis: Deciphering Gene Co-Expression Networks in Benign Pulmonary Nodules and Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis Comorbidity via Bioinformatics and Machine Learning

by Yaoyu Xie, Jingzhe Gao, Yifan Ren, Xiaoran Sun, Siju Lou, Guangli Yan, Ning Zhang, Hui Sun and Xijun Wang

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(8), 3647; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27083647 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

With increasing environmental pollution and a high incidence of respiratory infections, pulmonary nodules (PN) are being detected more frequently. Although most are benign, they are often accompanied by chronic inflammation and localized fibrosis, which may predispose patients to progression toward idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). However, the biological relationship between benign pulmonary nodules (BPNs) and IPF remains poorly understood. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the shared molecular mechanisms and identify potential biomarkers linking BPN and IPF, with the goal of elucidating the pathogenic transition from BPN to IPF. In this study, microarray data from GEO datasets were systematically analyzed to explore shared molecular mechanisms, immune infiltration characteristics, and potential early intervention strategies linking BPN and IPF. Differential expression analysis, protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks, weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), and integrative machine learning approaches identified MME and ANKRD23 as key hub genes associated with the transition from BPN to IPF. Both genes demonstrated strong diagnostic performance, with Area Under the Curve (AUC) values exceeding 0.7, and were significantly correlated with immune cell infiltration, particularly effector memory CD8⁺ T cells. Functional enrichment and gene set enrichment analyses indicated that these genes were mainly involved in immune-related processes in BPN, while in IPF, ANKRD23 was linked to cytoskeletal organization and genomic stability, and MME was enriched in profibrotic pathways such as TGF-β signaling. The diagnostic value of these biomarkers was further validated in a bleomycin-induced IPF mouse model using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). In addition, drug–gene interaction prediction and molecular docking analyses highlighted several naturally derived compounds with favorable binding affinity and anti-inflammatory properties, among which folic acid, curcumin, and arbutin emerged as promising candidates for safe early intervention. Collectively, these findings identify MME and ANKRD23 as potential biomarkers for early identification of BPN patients at risk of developing IPF and provide a theoretical basis for early diagnosis and targeted preventive strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Benchmarking of Modeling and Informatic Methods in Molecular Sciences)

18 pages, 1716 KB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Tiller Formation in Wild and Domesticated Accessions of Timothy (Phleum pratense) and Its Relatives P. nodosum and P. alpinum

by Yousef Rahimi, Girma Bedada, Anne-Maj Gustavsson, Pär K. Ingvarsson, Per-Olof Lundquist and Anna Westerbergh

Agriculture 2026, 16(8), 902; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture16080902 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

The perennial grass timothy (Phleum pratense) is an important forage crop in cold temperate regions. It forms three types of tillers: vegetative (VEG), generative (GEN), and non-flowering elongated (ELONG). To understand the influence of plant development and tiller formation on biomass production and the diversity in these traits, a total of 246 wild and domesticated accessions of timothy and the related species, P. nodosum and P. alpinum, were investigated. The length of different plant developmental stages and the formation of different tiller types were studied to test the hypotheses: (1) the proportion (%) of different tiller types affects biomass and is influenced by the lengths of the different plant developmental stages, (2) domestication and breeding have affected the length of developmental stages and proportions of tiller types. While timothy cultivars did not differ significantly from wild accessions in biomass, wild accessions had higher VEG%, which increased with latitude of accession origin. P. nodosum cultivars produced the highest number of ELONG of all accessions and species, and the ELONG% showed a strong positive correlation with biomass. Timothy cultivars showed later emergence and tillering, and reached stem elongation and heading earlier than wild accessions, suggesting that delayed tillering, but an overall faster development, has been favoured during breeding. The time between tillering and stem elongation showed a positive correlation with VEG%. This study reveals large diversity in developmental and tiller traits among accessions, reflecting differences in their domestication and breeding history, and highlighting the importance of considering early developmental traits and ELONG formation for yield and quality in further pre-breeding research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forage Breeding and Cultivation—2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 3866 KB

Open AccessReview

Brain Organoids: Emerging Platforms for Modern Neuroscience

by Lian Wang, Liwei Mao, Qing Cao and Xuemei Zong

Brain Sci. 2026, 16(4), 427; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16040427 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Brain organoids represent three-dimensional structures that allow for human-specific studies in brain development, pathology and therapeutics. These self-organizing systems, formed through the differentiation of human pluripotent stem cells, can mimic important cellular and molecular events of brain development and therefore serve as a platform for the investigation of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, brain injuries, and tumorigenesis. Although brain organoids show promising perspectives in the study of human physiology, existing brain organoid platforms are hindered by issues of under vascularization, immaturity and protocol variability. Nevertheless, the rapid development of new bioengineering, microfluidic and multi-omics tools and approaches allows us to overcome existing problems and increase the physiological significance of these organoids. Brain organoid transplantation and functional studies further enhance the applications of brain organoids in drug screening, disease modeling and personalized medicine. Here, we provide an overview of recent developments in the field of brain organoid cultures, functional characteristics and translational applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Collection on Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience)

23 pages, 1659 KB

Open AccessReview

Molecular Genetics of Bartter Syndrome: Bridging Genotype–Phenotype Correlations and Precision Therapeutics

by Lina Zhu, Yang Li and Yiyao Bao

Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2026, 48(4), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/cimb48040422 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Bartter syndrome (BS) represents a group of rare, autosomal recessive renal tubular disorders characterized by hypokalemic hypochloremic metabolic alkalosis, secondary hyperaldosteronism, and normal to low blood pressure. The underlying pathophysiology is primarily driven by defects in critical ion transport proteins or channels localized within the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, leading to impaired salt reabsorption. Recent advances in molecular genetics have refined the classification of Bartter syndrome. Current evidence supports SLC12A1, KCNJ1, CLCNKB, BSND, and MAGED2 as the core disease genes within the contemporary BS spectrum, with MAGED2 causing a distinct X-linked transient antenatal form. In contrast, gain-of-function CASR variants, historically labeled “type V Bartter syndrome”, are now more appropriately described as CaSR-associated Bartter-like phenotypes within the broader spectrum of disorders of calcium homeostasis. Despite significant progress, two primary research limitations remain. First, fully elucidating genotype–phenotype correlations and overcoming diagnostic complexities continues to be highly challenging due to substantial phenotypic overlap and genetic heterogeneity. Compounding these diagnostic hurdles is the equally critical challenge of understanding mutation-driven pathogenic mechanisms to develop viable clinical interventions. This review systematically summarizes the current molecular genetic landscape of BS to address these gaps. We highlight the relationships between specific genetic variants and clinical manifestations, delve into molecular pathophysiology including protein misfolding and trafficking defects, and explore emerging therapeutic approaches such as molecular chaperones. By integrating genetic and clinical data, this work aims to provide a comprehensive framework to facilitate precise diagnosis and individualized treatment strategies, ultimately advancing precision medicine in the management of Bartter syndrome. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Biology in Drug Design and Precision Therapy, 2nd Edition)

28 pages, 2053 KB

Open AccessReview

Emerging Urinary Biomarkers and Innovative Technologies for the Early Detection and Personalized Management of Chronic Kidney Disease

by Saltanat Moldakhmetova, Bikadisha Bimurat, Arailym Berdaly, Zhalaliddin Makhammajanov, Amankeldi Salykov, Rostislav Bukasov and Abduzhappar Gaipov

Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2026, 27(8), 3648; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27083648 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Chronic kidney disease is a global public health concern, representing a critical global public health challenge with increasing morbidity and mortality rates. The disease is a long-term condition characterized by the progressive loss of renal function. Early detection of declining kidney health and timely intervention are crucial to slow disease progression and improve prognosis, mitigating complications, including cardiovascular events. Current diagnostic standards are unable to detect early stages of kidney disease, reflecting early signs of glomerular and tubular damage. This creates an urgent need to identify reliable biomarkers for early detection, prognosis and therapeutic monitoring of kidney diseases. Novel biomarkers, including urinary microRNA, exosomal components, proteomic signatures and integrated multi-omics profiles, facilitated by up-to-date technologies offer strong promise for enhancing early diagnosis, risk assessment and monitoring of the disease. We focus on the fundamental biological significance and clinical application of these markers, discussing a critical evaluation of novel methodologies and clinical evidence supporting their potential for earlier and more precise diagnosis. This review summarizes innovative urinary biomarkers and advanced analytical technologies that can provide a more comprehensive and accurate assessment of the kidney status towards early diagnosis, better prognosis and better quality of life for patients with chronic kidney disease. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Molecular Pathology, Diagnostics, and Therapeutics)

16 pages, 1552 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Game-Based Assessment of Spatial Cognition Across a Wide Age Range

by Daniela E. Aguilar Ramirez, Zitong Wu, Catalina Basualto San Martin, Robbin Gibb and Claudia L. R. Gonzalez

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16040607 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Challenges remain in developing a comprehensive understanding of spatial cognition, including gender and developmental differences, partly due to limitations of well-established spatial measures. Many traditional tasks face accessibility constraints and are not well suited for use across broad age ranges, populations, or ability levels. The present study introduced two game-based tasks, Q-bitz^® and Spot it!^®, designed to assess mental rotation and object location memory, respectively. We examined whether these game-based measures meaningfully complement established spatial tests, the Mental Rotation Test (MRT) and the Object Location Memory (OLM) task, across a wide age range (7–79 years, N = 114). Results indicated that MRT scores were strongly related to Q-bitz performance, whereas OLM scores were strongly related to Spot it! performance, supporting the convergent validity of the game-based tasks. Notably, gender-specific patterns emerged in the relationships among spatial measures, suggesting differences in spatial function. Age was associated with performance on speeded tasks (Q-bitz and Spot it!) but not with accuracy-based MRT or OLM performance. Together, these findings demonstrate that game-based assessments capture meaningful spatial constructs and reveal gender-specific patterns across the lifespan, providing a practical and ecologically valid approach for advancing research on spatial cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Developing Cognitive and Executive Functions Across Lifespan)

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25 pages, 1519 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbon Emission Trading, Ownership Heterogeneity, and Corporate Green Innovation: The Synergistic Role of Information Disclosure and Financing Constraints

by Yuanyuan Wang, Zhuoxuan Yang and Shuyi Hu

Sustainability 2026, 18(8), 4060; https://doi.org/10.3390/su18084060 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Against the backdrop of China’s “dual carbon” goals, investigating whether market-based environmental regulations can effectively induce technological upgrading is critical for achieving a sustainable low-carbon transition. This study adopts a staggered difference-in-differences (DID) approach within a two-way fixed-effects framework, supplemented by propensity score matching (PSM-DID), to identify the causal impact of the carbon emission trading (CET) pilot policy. The research utilizes a comprehensive panel dataset of A-share listed companies in heavy-polluting industries from 2010 to 2024, incorporating IPC-matched green patent application data to provide a granular assessment of corporate innovation performance. The empirical findings reveal a structural divergence: while the CET policy promotes green innovation in state-owned enterprises (SOEs), it exhibits a potential “crowding-out” effect on private enterprises, a relationship further explained by the mechanisms of carbon information disclosure and financing constraints. These results suggest that the “Porter Effect” in emerging markets is highly conditional on institutional resource endowments, implying that policymakers must complement market incentives with differentiated financial support and enhanced transparency standards to foster a more equitable innovation ecosystem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Economic and Business Aspects of Sustainability)

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23 pages, 16003 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrative Network Analysis Framework for Identifying Altered Glycosylation Pathways Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder

by Anup Mammen Oommen, Marie Morel, Stephen Cunningham, Cathal Seoighe and Lokesh Joshi

Genes 2026, 17(4), 486; https://doi.org/10.3390/genes17040486 (registering DOI) - 19 Apr 2026

Abstract

Background: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition marked by heterogeneous behavioral symptoms and systemic comorbidities, including immune and gastrointestinal dysfunctions. Emerging studies suggest that glycosylation—a fundamental post-translational modification regulating cellular communication and immune responses—may play a role in ASD pathophysiology, yet its contribution remains underexplored. Methods: In this study, we developed an integrative transcriptomic and network analysis framework to investigate glycosylation-related gene expression changes and their functional associations in ASD. Using publicly available datasets from bulk and single-cell RNA sequencing of brain and blood tissues, we focused on four prior-knowledge gene subsets: glycogenes, extracellular matrix glycoproteins, immune response genes, and autism risk genes. Results: Differential expression and pathway enrichment analyses revealed consistent dysregulation of glycosylation pathways, including mucin-type O-glycan biosynthesis, glycosaminoglycan metabolism, GPI-anchor formation, and sialylation, across ASD tissues. These transcriptional changes were functionally linked to altered immune signaling (e.g., IL-17, Toll-like receptor, and complement pathways) and synaptic development pathways, forming a distinct glyco-immune axis. Network analysis identified key glycogenes such as GALNT10, NEU1, LMAN2L, and CHST1 as central molecular nodes, interacting with immune and neuronal regulators. Linkage disequilibrium analysis further revealed ASD-associated SNPs influencing the expression of these glycogenes in both blood and brain tissues. Conclusions: Together, these findings support a model in which disrupted glycosylation contributes to ASD pathophysiology by mediating immune dysregulation and altered neuronal connectivity. This study offers a systems-level framework to understand the molecular complexity of ASD and highlights glycogenes as potential biomarkers and targets for future therapeutic exploration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Autism: Genetics, Environment, Pathogenesis, and Treatment)

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