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56 pages, 3088 KiB  
Review
Controlling Sedimentation in Magnetorheological Fluids Through Ultrasound–Magnetic Field Coupling: Multiscale Analysis and Applications
by Annunziata Palumbo and Mario Versaci
Mathematics 2025, 13(15), 2540; https://doi.org/10.3390/math13152540 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Magnetorheological fluids (MRFs) are multiphase materials whose viscosity can be controlled via magnetic fields. However, particle sedimentation undermines their long-term stability. This review examines stabilization strategies based on the interaction between ultrasonic waves and time-varying magnetic fields, analyzed through advanced mathematical models. The [...] Read more.
Magnetorheological fluids (MRFs) are multiphase materials whose viscosity can be controlled via magnetic fields. However, particle sedimentation undermines their long-term stability. This review examines stabilization strategies based on the interaction between ultrasonic waves and time-varying magnetic fields, analyzed through advanced mathematical models. The propagation of acoustic waves in spherical and cylindrical domains is studied, including effects such as cavitation, acoustic radiation forces, and viscous attenuation. The Biot–Stoll poroelastic model is employed to describe saturated granular media, while magnetic field modulation is investigated as a means to balance gravitational settling. The analysis highlights how acousto-magnetic coupling supports the design of programmable and self-stabilizing intelligent fluids for complex applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engineering Thermodynamics and Fluid Mechanics)
29 pages, 4749 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Computational Analysis of Large-Amplitude Flutter in the Tacoma Narrows Bridge: Wind Tunnel Testing and Finite Element Time-Domain Simulation
by Bishang Zhang and Ledong Zhu
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2800; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152800 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Nonlinear wind-induced vibrations and coupled static–dynamic instabilities pose significant challenges for long-span suspension bridges, especially under large-amplitude and high-angle-of-attack conditions. However, existing studies have yet to fully capture the mechanisms behind large-amplitude torsional flutter. To address this, wind tunnel experiments were performed on [...] Read more.
Nonlinear wind-induced vibrations and coupled static–dynamic instabilities pose significant challenges for long-span suspension bridges, especially under large-amplitude and high-angle-of-attack conditions. However, existing studies have yet to fully capture the mechanisms behind large-amplitude torsional flutter. To address this, wind tunnel experiments were performed on H-shaped bluff sections and closed box girders using a high-precision five-component piezoelectric balance combined with a custom support system. Complementing these experiments, a finite element time-domain simulation framework was developed, incorporating experimentally derived nonlinear flutter derivatives. Validation was achieved through aeroelastic testing of a 1:110-scale model of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge and corresponding numerical simulations. The results revealed Hopf bifurcation phenomena in H-shaped bluff sections, indicated by amplitude-dependent flutter derivatives and equivalent damping coefficients. The simulation results showed less than a 10% deviation from experimental and historical wind speed–amplitude data, confirming the model’s accuracy. Failure analysis identified suspenders as the critical failure components in the Tacoma collapse. This work develops a comprehensive performance-based design framework that improves the safety, robustness, and resilience of long-span suspension bridges against complex nonlinear aerodynamic effects while enabling cost-effective, targeted reinforcement strategies to advance modern bridge engineering. Full article
18 pages, 2405 KiB  
Article
Dynamic Comparative Assessment of Long-Term Simulation Strategies for an Off-Grid PV–AEM Electrolyzer System
by Roberta Caponi, Domenico Vizza, Claudia Bassano, Luca Del Zotto and Enrico Bocci
Energies 2025, 18(15), 4209; https://doi.org/10.3390/en18154209 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Among the various renewable-powered pathways for green hydrogen production, solar photovoltaic (PV) technology represents a particularly promising option due to its environmental sustainability, widespread availability, and declining costs. However, the inherent intermittency of solar irradiance presents operational challenges for electrolyzers, particularly in terms [...] Read more.
Among the various renewable-powered pathways for green hydrogen production, solar photovoltaic (PV) technology represents a particularly promising option due to its environmental sustainability, widespread availability, and declining costs. However, the inherent intermittency of solar irradiance presents operational challenges for electrolyzers, particularly in terms of stability and efficiency. This study presents a MATLAB-based dynamic model of an off-grid, DC-coupled solar PV-Anion Exchange Membrane (AEM) electrolyzer system, with a specific focus on realistically estimating hydrogen output. The model incorporates thermal energy management strategies, including electrolyte pre-heating during startup, and accounts for performance degradation due to load cycling. The model is designed for a comprehensive analysis of hydrogen production by employing a 10-year time series of irradiance and ambient temperature profiles as inputs. The results are compared with two simplified scenarios: one that does not consider the equipment response time to variable supply and another that assumes a fixed start temperature to evaluate their impact on productivity. Furthermore, to limit the effects of degradation, the algorithm has been modified to allow the non-sequential activation of the stacks, resulting in an improvement of the single stack efficiency over the lifetime and a slight increase in overall hydrogen production. Full article
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45 pages, 3787 KiB  
Review
Electromigration Failures in Integrated Circuits: A Review of Physics-Based Models and Analytical Methods
by Ping Cheng, Ling-Feng Mao, Wen-Hao Shen and Yu-Ling Yan
Electronics 2025, 14(15), 3151; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14153151 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Electromigration (EM), current-driven atomic diffusion in interconnect metals, critically threatens integrated circuit (IC) reliability via void-induced open circuits and hillock-induced short circuits. This review examines EM’s physical mechanisms, influencing factors, and advanced models, synthesizing seven primary determinants: current density, temperature, material properties, microstructure, [...] Read more.
Electromigration (EM), current-driven atomic diffusion in interconnect metals, critically threatens integrated circuit (IC) reliability via void-induced open circuits and hillock-induced short circuits. This review examines EM’s physical mechanisms, influencing factors, and advanced models, synthesizing seven primary determinants: current density, temperature, material properties, microstructure, geometry, pulsed current, and mechanical stress. It dissects the coupled contributions of electron wind force (dominant EM driver), thermomigration (TM), and stress migration (SM). The review assesses four foundational modeling frameworks: Black’s model, Blech’s criterion, atomic flux divergence (AFD), and Korhonen’s theory. Despite advances in multi-physics simulation and statistical EM analysis, achieving predictive full-chip assessment remains computationally challenging. Emerging research prioritizes the following: (i) model order reduction methods and machine-learning solvers for verification of EM in billion-scale interconnect networks; and (ii) physics-informed routing optimization to inherently eliminate EM violations during physical design. Both are crucial for addressing reliability barriers in IC technologies and 3D heterogeneous integration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Electronic Materials, Devices and Applications)
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36 pages, 7591 KiB  
Article
Inspection Data-Driven Machine Learning Models for Predicting the Remaining Service Life of Deteriorating Bridge Decks
by Gitae Roh, Changsu Shim and Hyunhye Song
Buildings 2025, 15(15), 2799; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15152799 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
The bridge deck is more vulnerable to deterioration than other structural components. This is due to its direct exposure to environmental factors such as vehicular loads, chloride ingress, and freeze–thaw cycles. The resulting accelerated degradation often results in a serviceability life that is [...] Read more.
The bridge deck is more vulnerable to deterioration than other structural components. This is due to its direct exposure to environmental factors such as vehicular loads, chloride ingress, and freeze–thaw cycles. The resulting accelerated degradation often results in a serviceability life that is shorter than the intended design life. However, the absence of standardized condition assessment methods coupled with clear definitions of remaining service life has limited the establishment of rational guidelines for repair and strengthening. In a bid to address this lack, this study focuses on PSC-I type bridges in South Korea, utilizing long-term field inspection data to analyze environmental, structural, and material factors—including reinforcement corrosion, chloride diffusion, and freeze–thaw actions. Environmental zoning was applied based on regional conditions, while structural zoning was performed according to load characteristics, thereby allowing the classification of deck regions into moment zones and cantilever sections. Machine learning models were employed to identify dominant deterioration mechanisms, with the validity of the zoning classification being evaluated via model accuracy and SHAP value analysis. Additionally, a regression-based approach was proposed to estimate the remaining service life of the bridge deck for each corrosion phase, thereby providing a quantitative framework for durability assessment and maintenance planning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Knowledge Management in the Building and Construction Industry)
18 pages, 3363 KiB  
Article
Spatial Heterogeneity of Heavy Metals in Arid Oasis Soils and Its Irrigation Input–Soil Nutrient Coupling Mechanism
by Jiang Liu, Chongbo Li, Jing Wang, Liangliang Li, Junling He and Funian Zhao
Sustainability 2025, 17(15), 7156; https://doi.org/10.3390/su17157156 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Soil environmental quality in arid oases is crucial for regional ecological security but faces multi-source heavy metal (HM) contamination risks. This study aimed to (1) characterize the spatial distribution of soil HMs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Zn) in the Ka Shi [...] Read more.
Soil environmental quality in arid oases is crucial for regional ecological security but faces multi-source heavy metal (HM) contamination risks. This study aimed to (1) characterize the spatial distribution of soil HMs (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, and Zn) in the Ka Shi gar oasis, Xinjiang, (2) quantify the driving effect of irrigation water, and (3) elucidate interactions between HMs, soil properties, and land use types. Using 591 soil and 12 irrigation water samples, spatial patterns were mapped via inverse distance weighting interpolation, with drivers and interactions analyzed through correlation and land use comparisons. Results revealed significant spatial heterogeneity in HMs with no consistent regional trend: As peaked in arable land (5.27–40.20 μg/g) influenced by parent material and agriculture, Cd posed high ecological risk in gardens (max 0.29 μg/g), and Zn reached exceptional levels (412.00 μg/g) in gardens linked to industry/fertilizers. Irrigation water impacts were HM-specific: water contributed to soil As enrichment, whereas high water Cr did not elevate soil Cr (indicating industrial dominance), and Cd/Cu showed no significant link. Interactions with soil properties were regulated by land use: in arable land, As correlated positively with EC/TN and negatively with pH; in gardens, HMs generally decreased with pH, enhancing mobility risk; in forests, SOM adsorption immobilized HMs; in construction land, Hg correlated with SOM/TP, suggesting industrial-organic synergy. This study advances understanding by demonstrating that HM enrichment arises from natural and anthropogenic factors, with the spatial heterogeneity of irrigation water’s driving effect critically regulated by land use type, providing a spatially explicit basis for targeted pollution control and sustainable oasis management. Full article
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19 pages, 11437 KiB  
Article
Seasonal and Interannual Variations in Hydrological Dynamics of the Amazon Basin: Insights from Geodetic Observations
by Meilin He, Tao Chen, Yuanjin Pan, Lv Zhou, Yifei Lv and Lewen Zhao
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(15), 2739; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152739 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
The Amazon Basin plays a crucial role in the global hydrological cycle, where seasonal and interannual variations in terrestrial water storage (TWS) are essential for understanding climate–hydrology coupling mechanisms. This study utilizes data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission [...] Read more.
The Amazon Basin plays a crucial role in the global hydrological cycle, where seasonal and interannual variations in terrestrial water storage (TWS) are essential for understanding climate–hydrology coupling mechanisms. This study utilizes data from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite mission and its follow-on mission (GRACE-FO, collectively referred to as GRACE) to investigate the spatiotemporal dynamics of hydrological mass changes in the Amazon Basin from 2002 to 2021. Results reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity in the annual amplitude of TWS, exceeding 65 cm near the Amazon River and decreasing to less than 25 cm in peripheral mountainous regions. This distribution likely reflects the interplay between precipitation and topography. Vertical displacement measurements from the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) show strong correlations with GRACE-derived hydrological load deformation (mean Pearson correlation coefficient = 0.72) and reduce its root mean square (RMS) by 35%. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that existing hydrological models, which neglect groundwater dynamics, underestimate hydrological load deformation. Principal component analysis (PCA) of the Amazon GNSS network demonstrates that the first principal component (PC) of GNSS vertical displacement aligns with abrupt interannual TWS fluctuations identified by GRACE during 2010–2011, 2011–2012, 2013–2014, 2015–2016, and 2020–2021. These fluctuations coincide with extreme precipitation events associated with the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO), confirming that ENSO modulates basin-scale interannual hydrological variability primarily through precipitation anomalies. This study provides new insights for predicting extreme hydrological events under climate warming and offers a methodological framework applicable to other critical global hydrological regions. Full article
18 pages, 1727 KiB  
Article
Knowledge Distillation with Geometry-Consistent Feature Alignment for Robust Low-Light Apple Detection
by Yuanping Shi, Yanheng Ma, Liang Geng, Lina Chu, Bingxuan Li and Wei Li
Sensors 2025, 25(15), 4871; https://doi.org/10.3390/s25154871 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Apple-detection performance in orchards degrades markedly under low-light conditions, where intensified noise and non-uniform exposure blur edge cues critical for precise localisation. We propose Knowledge Distillation with Geometry-Consistent Feature Alignment (KDFA), a compact end-to-end framework that couples image enhancement and detection through the [...] Read more.
Apple-detection performance in orchards degrades markedly under low-light conditions, where intensified noise and non-uniform exposure blur edge cues critical for precise localisation. We propose Knowledge Distillation with Geometry-Consistent Feature Alignment (KDFA), a compact end-to-end framework that couples image enhancement and detection through the following two complementary components: (i) Cross-Domain Mutual-Information-Bound Knowledge Distillation, which maximises an InfoNCE lower bound between daylight-teacher and low-light-student region embeddings; (ii) Geometry-Consistent Feature Alignment, which imposes Laplacian smoothness and bipartite graph correspondences across multiscale feature lattices. Trained on 1200 pixel-aligned bright/low-light image pairs, KDFA achieves 51.3% mean Average Precision (mAPQ [0.50:0.95]) on a challenging low-light apple-detection benchmark, setting a new state of the art by simultaneously bridging the illumination-domain gap and preserving geometric consistency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sensor and AI Technologies in Intelligent Agriculture: 2nd Edition)
18 pages, 1861 KiB  
Article
Clay Nanomaterials Sorbents for Cleaner Water: A Sustainable Application for the Mining Industry
by María Molina-Fernández, Albert Santos Silva, Rodrigo Prado Feitosa, Edson C. Silva-Filho, Josy A. Osajima, Santiago Medina-Carrasco and María del Mar Orta Cuevas
Nanomaterials 2025, 15(15), 1211; https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15151211 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
The increasing shortage of drinking water, driven by reduced rainfall and the intensification of industrial and agricultural activities, has raised justified concerns about the quantity and quality of available water resources. These sectors not only demand high water consumption but also discharge large [...] Read more.
The increasing shortage of drinking water, driven by reduced rainfall and the intensification of industrial and agricultural activities, has raised justified concerns about the quantity and quality of available water resources. These sectors not only demand high water consumption but also discharge large amounts of toxic substances such as organic matter, metal ions and inorganic anions, posing risks to both public health and the environment. This study evaluated the effectiveness of clay-based nanomaterials in the treatment of contaminated industrial wastewater from the mining sector. The materials tested included montmorillonite, high-loading expandable synthetic mica, and their organically functionalized forms (MMT, Mica-Na-4, C18-MMT, and C18-Mica-4). The experimental results show that these clays had minimal impact on the pH of the water, while a notable decrease in the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was observed. Ion chromatography indicated an increase in nitrogen and sulfur compounds with higher oxidation states. Inductively coupled plasma analysis revealed a significant reduction in the calcium concentration and an increase in the sodium concentration, likely due to cation exchange mechanisms. However, the removal of copper and iron was ineffective, possibly due to competitive interactions with other cations in the solution. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed the structural modifications and interlayer spacing changes in the clay materials upon exposure to contaminated water. These findings demonstrate the potential of clay minerals as effective and low-cost materials for the remediation of industrial wastewater. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Nanomaterials: Innovations in Sustainable Applications)
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23 pages, 714 KiB  
Article
Thermodynamic Analysis of Biomass Pyrolysis in an Auger Reactor Coupled with a Fluidized-Bed Reactor for Catalytic Deoxygenation
by Balkydia Campusano, Michael Jabbour, Lokmane Abdelouahed and Bechara Taouk
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2496; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082496 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
This research contributes to advance the sustainable production of biofuels and provides insights into the energy and exergy assessment of bio-oil, which is essential for developing environmentally friendly energy production solutions. Energy and exergy analyses were performed to evaluate the pyrolysis of beech [...] Read more.
This research contributes to advance the sustainable production of biofuels and provides insights into the energy and exergy assessment of bio-oil, which is essential for developing environmentally friendly energy production solutions. Energy and exergy analyses were performed to evaluate the pyrolysis of beech wood biomass at 500 °C in an Auger reactor. To improve the quality of the obtained bio-oil, its catalytic deoxygenation was performed within an in-line fluidized catalytic bed reactor using a catalyst based on HZSM5 zeolite modified with 5 wt.% Iron (5%FeHZSM-5). A thermodynamic analysis of the catalytic and non-catalytic pyrolysis system was carried out, as well as a comparative study of the calculation methods for the energy and exergy evaluation for bio-oil. The required heat for pyrolysis was found to be 1.2 MJ/kgbiomass in the case of non-catalytic treatment and 3.46 MJ/kgbiomass in the presence of the zeolite-based catalyst. The exergy efficiency in the Auger reactor was 90.3%. Using the catalytic system coupled to the Auger reactor, this efficiency increased to 91.6%, leading to less energy degradation. Calculating the total energy and total exergy of the bio-oil using two different methods showed a difference of 6%. In the first method, only the energy contributions of the model compounds, corresponding to the major compounds of each chemical family of bio-oil, were considered. In contrast, in the second method, all molecules identified in the bio-oil were considered for the calculation. The second method proved to be more suitable for thermodynamic analysis. The novelties of this work concern the thermodynamic analysis of a coupled system of an Auger biomass pyrolysis reactor and a fluidized bed catalytic deoxygenation reactor on the one hand, and the use of all the molecules identified in the oily phase for the evaluation of energy and exergy on the other hand. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemical Processes and Systems)
24 pages, 6501 KiB  
Article
Exploring Lattice Rotations Induced by Kinematic Constraints in Deep Drawing from Crystal Plasticity Approach
by Yu-Xuan Jiang, Shih-Heng Tung and Jui-Chao Kuo
Metals 2025, 15(8), 883; https://doi.org/10.3390/met15080883 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
The anisotropic nature of cup ears formed during the deep drawing of sheet metals is governed by the distribution of crystallographic orientation in interaction between earing. In this study, we examined the orientation development of a cube-oriented aluminum single crystal to couple the [...] Read more.
The anisotropic nature of cup ears formed during the deep drawing of sheet metals is governed by the distribution of crystallographic orientation in interaction between earing. In this study, we examined the orientation development of a cube-oriented aluminum single crystal to couple the deep drawing kinematics with the formation of anisotropic orientations. A quarter model of a circular deep-drawn blank was simulated in the finite element software using a user-defined material subroutine. A cube-oriented aluminum single crystal was designed to serve as a reference and trace the orientation evolution in the deep drawing process. After the deep drawing, the bottom, wall, and flange of the drawn cup were investigated at azimuthal angles (α ) of 0° and 45° with respect to the radial direction (RD) in terms of the orientation. Our findings show that the change in the lattice orientation could be attributed to the rotation induced by drawing and bending processes under kinematic constraints. Thus, the initial cube orientation developed into different orientations during the deep drawing. The type-A slip system mainly contributed to the radial strain at α = 0°, and type-B and C slip systems accounted for the longitudinal and circumferential strains at α = 45°. Full article
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27 pages, 40090 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Super-Resolution of Satellite Sea Surface Salinity Based on A Progressive Transfer Learning-Enhanced Transformer
by Zhenyu Liang, Senliang Bao, Weimin Zhang, Huizan Wang, Hengqian Yan, Juan Dai and Peikun Xiao
Remote Sens. 2025, 17(15), 2735; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs17152735 (registering DOI) - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Satellite sea surface salinity (SSS) products suffer from coarse spatiotemporal resolution, limiting their utility for mesoscale ocean monitoring. To address this, we proposed the Transformer-based satellite SSS super-resolution (SR) model (TSR) coupled with a progressive transfer learning (PTL) strategy. TSR improved the resolution [...] Read more.
Satellite sea surface salinity (SSS) products suffer from coarse spatiotemporal resolution, limiting their utility for mesoscale ocean monitoring. To address this, we proposed the Transformer-based satellite SSS super-resolution (SR) model (TSR) coupled with a progressive transfer learning (PTL) strategy. TSR improved the resolution of the salinity satellite SMOS from 1/4° and 10 days to 1/12° and daily. Leveraging Transformer, TSR captured long-range dependencies critical for reconstructing fine-scale structures. PTL effectively balanced structural detail acquisition and local accuracy correction by combining the gridded reanalysis products with scattered in situ observations as training labels. Validated against independent in situ measurements, TSR outperformed existing L3 salinity satellite products, as well as convolutional neural network and generative adversarial network-based SR models, particularly reducing the root mean square error (RMSE) by 33% and the mean bias (MB) by 81% compared to the SMOS input. More importantly, TSR demonstrated an enhanced capability in resolving mesoscale eddies, which were previously obscured by noise in salinity satellite products. Compared to training with a single label type or switching label types non-progressively, PTL achieved a 3%–66% lower RMSE and a 73–92% lower MB. TSR enables higher-resolution satellite monitoring of SSS, contributing to the study of ocean dynamics and climate change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Artificial Intelligence and Big Data for Oceanography (2nd Edition))
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17 pages, 4004 KiB  
Article
Research on Switching Current Model of GaN HEMT Based on Neural Network
by Xiang Wang, Zhihui Zhao, Huikai Chen, Xueqi Sun, Shulong Wang and Guohao Zhang
Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080915 - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
The switching characteristics of GaN HEMT devices exhibit a very complex dynamic nonlinear behavior and multi-physics coupling characteristics, and traditional switching current models based on physical mechanisms have significant limitations. This article adopts a hybrid architecture of convolutional neural network and long short-term [...] Read more.
The switching characteristics of GaN HEMT devices exhibit a very complex dynamic nonlinear behavior and multi-physics coupling characteristics, and traditional switching current models based on physical mechanisms have significant limitations. This article adopts a hybrid architecture of convolutional neural network and long short-term memory network (CNN-LSTM). In the 1D-CNN layer, the one-dimensional convolutional neural network can automatically learn and extract local transient features of time series data by sliding convolution operations on time series data through its convolution kernel, making these local transient features present a specific form in the local time window. In the double-layer LSTM layer, the neural network model captures the transient characteristics of switch current through the gating mechanism and state transfer. The hybrid architecture of the constructed model has significant advantages in accuracy, with metrics such as root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) significantly reduced, compared to traditional switch current models, solving the problem of insufficient accuracy in traditional models. The neural network model has good fitting performance at both room and high temperatures, with an average coefficient close to 1. The new neural network hybrid architecture has short running time and low computational resource consumption, meeting the needs of practical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Wide Bandgap Semiconductor Materials and Devices)
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14 pages, 7546 KiB  
Article
Measuring the Effects of Gas Pressure and Confining Pressures on Coal: In the View of Time–Frequency Evolutionary Properties and Crack Propagation Behavior
by Yufei Tian, Junjun Jiang, Zhigang Deng, Yin Wang, Zhuoran Duan, Weiguang Ren, Yunpeng Li and Guanghui Zhang
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2493; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082493 - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
As coal mining progresses to greater depths, the complex geological conditions significantly increase the risk of compound disasters. With increasing mining depth, elevated ground stress and gas pressure exacerbate the coupling effects of rockburst and gas outburst. This study employs laboratory tests and [...] Read more.
As coal mining progresses to greater depths, the complex geological conditions significantly increase the risk of compound disasters. With increasing mining depth, elevated ground stress and gas pressure exacerbate the coupling effects of rockburst and gas outburst. This study employs laboratory tests and theoretical analysis to investigate gas disasters under varying gas and confining pressures. The experimental results are analyzed in terms of mechanical parameters, crack propagation, and acoustic emission (AE) time–frequency evolution. Under conventional compression, coal failure exhibits shear damage with axial splitting or debris ejection. The peak strength demonstrates a clear confining pressure strengthening effect and gas pressure weakening effect. At constant gas pressure, the elastic modulus increases with confining pressure, whereas at constant confining pressure, it decreases with rising gas pressure. Full article
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17 pages, 6476 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Exposure to Heavy-Day Rainfall in the Western Himalaya Mapped with Remote Sensing, GIS, and Deep Learning
by Zahid Ahmad Dar, Saurabh Kumar Gupta, Shruti Kanga, Suraj Kumar Singh, Gowhar Meraj, Pankaj Kumar, Bhartendu Sajan, Bojan Đurin, Nikola Kranjčić and Dragana Dogančić
Geomatics 2025, 5(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/geomatics5030037 - 7 Aug 2025
Abstract
Heavy rainfall events, characterized by extreme downpours that exceed 100 mm per day, pose an intensifying hazard to the densely settled valleys of the western Himalaya; however, their coupling with expanding urban land cover remains under-quantified. This study mapped the spatiotemporal exposure of [...] Read more.
Heavy rainfall events, characterized by extreme downpours that exceed 100 mm per day, pose an intensifying hazard to the densely settled valleys of the western Himalaya; however, their coupling with expanding urban land cover remains under-quantified. This study mapped the spatiotemporal exposure of built-up areas to heavy-day rainfall (HDR) across Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh and the adjoining areas by integrating daily Climate Hazards Group InfraRed Precipitation with Stations product (CHIRPS) precipitation (0.05°) with Global Human Settlement Layer (GHSL) built-up fractions within the Google Earth Engine (GEE). Given the limited sub-hourly observations, a daily threshold of ≥100 mm was adopted as a proxy for HDR, with sensitivity evaluated at alternative thresholds. The results showed that HDR is strongly clustered along the Kashmir Valley and the Pir Panjal flank, as demonstrated by the mean annual count of threshold-exceeding pixels increasing from 12 yr−1 (2000–2010) to 18 yr−1 (2011–2020), with two pixel-scale hotspots recurring southwest of Srinagar and near Baramulla regions. The cumulative high-intensity areas covered 31,555.26 km2, whereas 37,897.04 km2 of adjacent terrain registered no HDR events. Within this hazard belt, the exposed built-up area increased from 45 km2 in 2000 to 72 km2 in 2020, totaling 828 km2. The years with the most expansive rainfall footprints, 344 km2 (2010), 520 km2 (2012), and 650 km2 (2014), coincided with heavy Western Disturbances (WDs) and locally vigorous convection, producing the largest exposure increments. We also performed a forecast using a univariate long short-term memory (LSTM), outperforming Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) and linear baselines on a 2017–2020 holdout (Root Mean Square Error, RMSE 0.82 km2; measure of errors, MAE 0.65 km2; R2 0.89), projecting the annual built-up area intersecting HDR to increase from ~320 km2 (2021) to ~420 km2 (2030); 95% prediction intervals widened from ±6 to ±11 km2 and remained above the historical median (~70 km2). In the absence of a long-term increase in total annual precipitation, the projected rise most likely reflects continued urban encroachment into recurrent high-intensity zones. The resulting spatial masks and exposure trajectories provide operational evidence to guide zoning, drainage design, and early warning protocols in the region. Full article
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