Search Results (3,274)

Yield losses due to water-deficit (WD) conditions, especially during the reproductive stages of plant development, pose a significant threat to global canola (Brassica napus L.) production. Therefore, it is critical to investigate traits contributing to improved productivity under increased WD conditions. Here we present phenotypic, physiological and transcriptomic changes in response to WD across contrasting canola accessions exhibiting variation in drought resistance-related traits. WD significantly reduced shoot biomass, plant height, harvest index, leaf water content, photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation rate, intrinsic water-use efficiency and carbon isotope discrimination. WD caused 49 to 100% of the seed yield reduction: the minimum seed yield reduction (49.66%) was observed in a doubled-haploid (DH) line, 06-5101.137, while the maximum yield reduction (94.1 to 100%) occurred in the late-flowering DH lines (06.5101.088, 06-5101.306). Seed yield showed a positive correlation (r = 0.35 to 0.97) with shoot biomass, plant height, harvest index, leaf water content, photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation rate, intrinsic water use efficiency and carbon isotope discrimination. However, it showed negative correlations with days to flower, specific leaf weight, root length and root biomass (r = −0.08 to −0.80) across water treatments. The leaf transcriptome analysis of the two parental lines of DH population that exhibit variation for effective water use under well-watered and water-deficient conditions revealed different categories of differentially expressed genes (DEGs): WD-responsive DEGs in BC1329 parental line (1116) and BC9102 (1205) with 754 and 853 DEGs unique to BC1329 and BC9102, respectively, WD-responsive DEGs (906), genotype-dependent DEGs (8465) and genotype × treatment interaction DEGs (353). DEG annotations revealed that the WD-treatment-affected genes were involved in stress responses and growth and development. We further located 235 DEGs within the QTL regions underlying agronomic and physiological performance. Our study provides a conceptual framework for the morphological, physiological and molecular determinants involved in water-use efficiency. Seedlings’ traits with high heritability values, such as shoot biomass, leaf weight, leaf water content and Δ¹³C, serve as proxies for trait-based selection for improved seed yield under both water-limited and non-water-limited conditions. Full article

The valorization of agricultural residues as alternative lignocellulosic fiber resources may improve biomass utilization. This study comparatively evaluated Corchorus olitorius L. bast fibers recovered from Egyptian Molokhia stem residues using biological water retting, cold alkaline extraction, and manual scraping. The fibers were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), chemical composition analysis, elongation-at-break measurements, moisture content determination, extraction-related weight-loss assessment, and thermogravimetric/derivative thermogravimetric analysis (TGA/DTG). Cold alkaline extraction produced the highest measured cellulose content (72.0 ± 3.98%) and the lowest measured lignin content (3.0 ± 1.98%). Biological retting produced the highest empirical Segal crystallinity index (75.2%), whereas chemically extracted fibers exhibited the highest elongation at break (1.8 ± 0.17%). Extraction-related weight loss reached 71.4 ± 0.4% after 21 days of biological retting and 80.7 ± 0.5% after 9 days of cold alkaline extraction; these values reflect overall mass reduction during extraction and should not be interpreted solely as removal of specific non-cellulosic constituents. TGA/DTG showed the highest measured onset degradation temperature and maximum degradation-rate temperature for biologically retted fibers (344.4 and 379.6 °C, respectively), while chemical extraction produced the highest residual mass at 600 °C (9.85%). Overall, the extraction route influenced the measured chemical, morphological, structural, mechanical, and thermal characteristics, with no single method exhibiting the highest values across all evaluated parameters. These findings provide comparative baseline data for further evaluation and optimization of Corchorus olitorius bast fibers recovered from Egyptian Molokhia stem residues. Full article

The widespread deployment of low-carbon technologies in households is increasing the need to reduce peak electricity demand on distribution grids. Air-source heat pumps (ASHPs) are efficient heating units, but their performance declines at low ambient temperatures, increasing winter peak demand. In rural areas, limited grid capacity can constrain their use as a sole heating source, while biomass remains widely used for space heating and contributes to fine particulate matter (PM₁₀) emissions. Unfavourable winter conditions can further increase local pollutant concentrations. This study investigates the potential operating cost savings and PM₁₀ emission reductions when using a biomass-assisted hybrid heat pump (HHP) operating in bivalent mode, while also evaluating GHG emissions relative to a monovalent ASHP, providing a combined assessment not previously applied to biomass-assisted hybrid heat pumps. A validated simulation model was developed to determine the optimal switching temperature using hourly temperature data from 23 locations across Slovenia. The results were interpolated nationally and visualised using GIS tools. The findings indicate that annual cost savings can reach up to 10% and PM₁₀ emission reductions can reach up to 20 kg for a single-family building in colder, mountainous regions. Full article

Nutrient-uptake proteins (NUPs) have the potential to serve as biomarkers for crop improvement, with most studies to date focusing on NUP gene sequence or mRNA levels. In this paper, we examined if protein levels of the main iron (Fe)-uptake proteins in roots scaled with sensitivity to Fe deficiency among five tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) cultivars grown at low or medium Fe (0.5 or 50 μM). Across cultivars, biomass, shoot Fe concentration, and leaf chlorophyll concentration ([chl]) were lower at low vs. medium Fe, but the concentrations of the main Fe-uptake proteins in roots [iron-regulated transporter (IRT), plasma-membrane H⁺-ATPase (H⁺-ATPase), and ferric reduction oxidase (FRO)] were generally higher at low vs. medium Fe (both per unit total root protein and per g). Among cultivars, the % change between controls and low Fe in [chl], a common biomarker for Fe deficiency, and fresh biomass were positively correlated (r = 0.78, p = 0.12). In contrast, the % decrease in plant mass at low (compared to medium) Fe was inversely correlated with the % increase per unit total protein in levels of IRT (r = −0.93, p = 0.02) and, to a lesser extent, FRO (r = −0.82, p = 0.09), but was not correlated with % change in levels of H⁺-ATPase (p = 0.34). However, sensitive cultivars exhibited decreases in root protein concentration per g root at low vs. medium Fe, while tolerant cultivars had higher root protein levels at low Fe, which resulted in similar levels of IRT per g root among cultivars. Thus, among tomato cultivars, while low Fe generally induced increases in the main Fe-uptake proteins in roots, these increases were not higher in cultivars tolerant of low Fe; instead, tolerance to low Fe among cultivars was related to the ability to increase the concentration of total protein in roots. Full article

Srebarna Lake, a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and Danube floodplain wetland, is characterized by pronounced hydrological fluctuations related to variations in Danube River water levels. This study compared phytoplankton functional organization between selected historical and recent years using the Reynolds–Padisák functional group (FG) approach and considering variations in Danube water levels. The descriptive comparison included phytoplankton samples collected between May and September from the central lake area in three historical (2003, 2004, 2007) and four recent sampling years (2022–2025). Single-month observations from intervening years were also considered. Partial redundancy analysis (pRDA) was used to evaluate differences in FG composition between historical and recent periods in relation to measured environmental gradients, using a balanced subset of six years. The recent period was characterized by generally lower Danube water levels, suggesting reduced opportunities for hydrological connectivity with the Danube. Recurrent dominance of FG SN, represented by Raphidiopsis raciborskii, was observed in 2022–2024, contrasting with the prominence of S1 and contribution of FGs M and H1 in the historical observations. A strong reduction or disappearance of cyanobacterial FGs, accompanied by lower total phytoplankton biomass, occurred under contrasting hydrological extremes, with diatom FGs prominent in 2007 following flooding events and a predominance of FGs X1 and G in 2025 under severe low-water conditions. The overall pRDA model significantly explained variation in FG composition; however, the historical–recent contrast was not statistically significant when Period was tested separately at the whole-plot level, indicating that the observed temporal patterns should be interpreted in the context of interannual variation and the measured environmental gradients. Full article

High-speed projectile impact is a promising approach for assisting hard-rock fragmentation; however, the coupled effects of projectile geometry and impact velocity on crater formation and penetration behavior under lateral confinement remain insufficiently understood. In this study, seven granite penetration tests were conducted using a biomass-fueled combustion-driven gas gun system coupled with a biaxial lateral confinement device, including one unconfined case and six cases under 2 MPa lateral confinement. Equal-mass YG20 cemented carbide projectiles with cone angles of 60°, 90°, and 120° were tested at nominal velocities of approximately 220 and 400 m/s. The results show that the two velocity levels produced different crater morphologies, and cone angle regulated the relative development of axial penetration and transverse crater expansion. At the lower velocity level, surface crushing dominated, with penetration depth decreasing from 13.5 to 10.5 mm and equivalent crater diameter decreasing from 74.5 to 44.4 mm as cone angle increased. At the higher velocity level, funnel-shaped craters were formed, with penetration depth decreasing from 45.0 to 30.0 mm, while equivalent crater diameter exhibited a non-monotonic variation. Dynamic strain measurements revealed coupled radial compression and circumferential tensile responses, with more complex transient fluctuations observed for the 120° projectile at high velocity. Based on the Young/Sandia framework, a condition-specific penetration-depth correlation was established. The full seven-test calibration gave an in-sample RMSE of 1.87 mm and R² = 0.977, while leave-one-condition-out evaluation of the five conditions not used to define the paired-test boundary-state reduction ratio K₂ yielded an RMSE of 3.40 mm and R² = 0.937. The held-out analysis is interpreted as an internal stability check rather than independent external validation. These findings provide insights into the coupled influence of projectile cone angle and impact velocity on granite crater formation under controlled lateral confinement. Full article

Biofilm-associated infections represent a critical challenge in modern medicine, accounting for approximately 80% of all microbial infections and demonstrating up to 1000-fold higher antimicrobial resistance compared to planktonic bacteria. The extraordinary recalcitrance of biofilms stems from a complex interplay of physical barriers (extracellular polymeric substance matrix), chemical gradients (pH and oxygen heterogeneity), and biological defenses (persister cells and horizontal gene transfer), rendering conventional antibiotics largely ineffective. This comprehensive review highlights the transformative potential of antimicrobial nanoformulations in overcoming these formidable barriers through strategic design principles and diverse mechanisms of action. Evidence demonstrates that rationally engineered nanocarriers achieve improvements in bacterial killing, biofilm biomass reduction, and colony-forming unit reductions compared to free antibiotics. Advanced stimuli-responsive systems exploiting biofilm-specific triggers (acidic pH, bacterial enzymes, elevated ATP) and externally applied stimuli (near-infrared photothermal therapy, ultrasound sonodynamic therapy) enable on-demand therapeutic activation with unprecedented precision, achieving >99.999% bacterial elimination and near-complete biofilm eradication. Despite these remarkable advances, clinical translation remains hindered by challenges in scalability, comprehensive safety evaluation, and regulatory pathway navigation. This review establishes a consolidated evidence base for the design of next-generation antimicrobial nanoformulations, highlights their potential to address biofilm-associated infections, and identifies key knowledge gaps and translation barriers that must be addressed to realize their therapeutic promise. Full article

Waste from the aggregate processing industry has the potential to be used for value-added products. Its plastic properties and sinterability allow for the production of lightweight aggregates. This process can yield materials with high open porosity at various scales. This article presents the possibilities of obtaining lightweight aggregates from clay–silt fractions obtained by washing crushed dolomite aggregates. Aggregate formation was achieved using selected mechanical processing methods, such as dynamic granulation, sedimentation, crushing, and classification. Biomass was added to increase the aggregate’s porosity. The following instrumental techniques were used to assess the aggregate’s parameters: X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to obtain detailed information on the oxide composition of the tested raw materials; high-temperature microscopy (HSM) to determine the specific sintering temperature; and pH and conductivity meters to examine filtration solutions in direct contact with the aggregate. A key issue was to examine the microstructure of the produced aggregates after firing using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller method for measuring material surface area (BET), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. The obtained results will allow for further research into developing a concept for the production of lightweight alkaline aggregates. The aggregates produced exhibit high water absorption (approximately 50%), a low bulk density of 0.82 g/cm³, and meso- (approximately 30–100 µm) and bioporosity (approximately 100–500 µm), which is beneficial for the proper development of plant roots and the absorption and release of water. This research contributes to the identification of resources that can be transformed into lightweight aggregates for urban greening, which is consistent with circular economy strategies and environmental protection. The specific mechanisms through which this research supports sustainable development are the reduction in landfill sites and the protection of natural resources. Furthermore, the aggregates produced can form part of blue-green urban infrastructure, which aims to manage rainwater and reduce the urban heat island effect. Full article

This study assessed the effects of aqueous extracts from turmeric (Curcuma longa), mint (Mentha sp.), grape peel (Vitis sp.), and mango peel (Mangifera indica) on the growth and total carotenoid content of the microalga Dunaliella salina. A two-stage cultivation strategy was employed, in which aqueous extracts prepared by decoction were added at 0.5% (v/v) either at the inoculation or after the exponential growth phase. Microalgal growth was monitored by direct cell counting, and total carotenoid content was determined spectrophotometrically in the harvested biomass. The chemical profiles of the extracts were characterised by HPLC-MS/MS, enabling the annotation of key phenolic and flavonoid compounds. Specific orange turmeric and mint formulations enhanced microalgal cell proliferation by up to 31.88% and 28.95%, respectively, compared to the control. However, despite the higher biomass, the total carotenoid content did not increase correspondingly; orange turmeric extract even led to reductions of 90.84 to 92.86% in carotenoid content. These findings suggest that exogenous antioxidants may suppress the oxidative stress signals required to trigger carotenoid biosynthesis in D. salina. Additionally, grape peel extracts prepared at higher temperatures promoted better algal growth than those obtained at lower temperatures. These findings highlight the dual role of plant extracts in modulating microalgal growth and secondary metabolism, demonstrating that antioxidant-rich extracts may be used to enhance biomass accumulation before the subsequent induction of stress-mediated carotenogenesis, thereby potentially improving biotechnological yields. Full article

Off-grid agricultural cold chains suffer from high energy conversion losses due to intermediate electrical stages in traditional refrigeration. This study addresses the lack of empirical quantification by comparing Direct Mechanical Drive (DMD) and Electrical Power Generation (EPG) drive trains for an R-134a vapor compression refrigeration system. Under steady-state conditions (randomized block design), DMD achieved a statistically significant 13.89% reduction in biomass consumption over EPG (1840.0 vs. 2136.7 g/h; p < 0.001). The biomass consumption was evaluated based on the measured charcoal mass flow under the same lower heating value basis. Conversely, refrigeration COP was statistically equivalent (2.74 vs. 2.73; p = 0.815), confirming that drive-train architecture does not alter internal vapor compression thermodynamics. Only 19.6% of the compressor shaft power appeared as useful fluid-side compression work under this fractional-load operating condition, a volumetric rather than mechanical deficiency arising from operation at 7.7–15.5% of the compressor’s rated capacity. Referenced consistently to the primary biomass chemical energy input, the First-Law biomass-to-cooling system efficiency was 3.66% (equivalent to 5.34% when referenced to the syngas delivered to the engine), with a corresponding biomass-referenced exergy efficiency of 0.44%. Component exergy analysis revealed that the internal combustion engine (59.13% of total exergy destruction, ε = 13.1%) and the gasifier (32.4%, ε = 67.7%) dominated total system exergy destruction (15.49 kW). Furthermore, a 10-year life-cycle cost (LCC) analysis indicates DMD-Syngas yields net present value savings of 21,071.57 USD over gasoline-EPG, yielding a 0.14-year (~50-day) simple payback period on the 400.12 USD net incremental hardware capital cost (the gasification subsystem less the alternator–motor drive train that the direct-drive configuration does not require, and excluding one-time installation and training costs). When the fully installed cost is accounted for—including site preparation, process-water supply and effluent handling, low-voltage provision, installation labor, operator training and contingency—the incremental investment rises to 1298–2405 USD and the payback period extends to approximately 162–301 days. Under the least favorable combination examined, in which commercially purchased charcoal is imposed simultaneously with the upper installed-cost bound, capital recovery extends to approximately 1.4 years; the base case nevertheless recovers the incremental investment within the first operating year. An operational-phase (gate-to-gate) carbon assessment indicates near parity with the gasoline baseline on a strictly attributional basis (+120 to +1200 kg CO₂e yr⁻¹); a net saving of 8880–13,320 kg CO₂e yr⁻¹ arises only under the consequential scenario in which open-field burning of orchard residues is displaced and is further contingent on including black carbon in the accounting basket. This is not a full ISO 14040/44 life-cycle assessment, and the environmental outcome is therefore scenario-dependent rather than intrinsic to fuel substitution. These results demonstrate that mechanical drive-train optimization substantially enhances fuel economy without compromising refrigeration performance, providing a rigorous evidence base for scalable biomass-powered off-grid cold chains. Full article

Oil palm plantations generate substantial biomass and by-products with potential to support the circular bioeconomy and crop–livestock integration. This study assessed biomass and nitrogen flows across three oil palm–cattle integration scenarios using material-flow analysis and nitrogen flow diagrams. Field observations were conducted in April 2026 in a seven-paddock grazing area. Scenarios A and B reflected existing conditions, whereas Scenario C represented a potential model incorporating assumed by-product utilization pathways. Cattle grazing was associated with an estimated 43.2% reduction in understory biomass relative to the non-integrated oil palm plantation. Under the assumed pathways, Scenario C indicated greater material-flow connectivity and nitrogen recycling, with the highest total N input, recycled N, and N recycling rate at 241 kg N/ha/year, 54.5 kg N/ha/year and 22.6%, respectively, while reducing unused oil palm by-products through palm kernel meal utilization. External N input remained 180 kg N/ha/year across scenarios, while product N output increased from 67.2 kg N/ha/year in Scenario A to 71.1 kg N/ha/year in Scenario C. Overall, cattle integration increased biomass utilization and internal nitrogen recirculation, although substantial N surpluses, estimated N₂O-related emissions, and unutilized residues remained. These findings indicate opportunities to improve nutrient recovery and by-product utilization without implying reduced dependence on external fertilizer inputs. Full article

A. filiculoides is a fast-growing aquatic fern with potential for laboratory-scale biomass production, nutrient recovery and biorefinery-oriented bioprocessing. However, its cultivation in controlled bioreactors remains limited by insufficient integration of treatment formulation, physicochemical monitoring and predictive optimization. This study evaluated A. filiculoides biomass production for 30 days in semi-closed 5 L glass bioreactors under three cultivation conditions: Hoagland-type mineral solution (T1), Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium (T2), and an aqueous growth-regulator treatment containing 6-benzylaminopurine and indole-3-acetic acid (BAP–IAA; 1 mg L⁻¹ each) (T3). The initial biomass was standardized at 0.10 g FW L⁻¹. By day 30, T3 showed the highest final fresh biomass concentration 1.208 ± 0.043 g FW L⁻¹, followed by T1 0.948 ± 0.025 g FW L⁻¹ and T2 0.538 ± 0.033 g FW L⁻¹. Principal component analysis and k-means clustering showed that dissolved oxygen, oxidation–reduction potential, electrical conductivity, resistivity, pH and water temperature structured the cultivation environment. The physicochemical-modulated Gompertz model showed high internal predictive performance, with training R² = 0.997, RMSE = 0.016 and MAE = 0.013, and cross-validation R² = 0.986, RMSE = 0.033 and MAE = 0.024. Model-based optimization identified T3 at day 30 as the optimal condition, with predicted biomass of approximately 1.224 g FW L⁻¹. The associated operating window corresponded to pH 7.34–7.52, dissolved oxygen 5.70–6.30 mg L⁻¹, ORP 75.40–102.00 mV, EC 983.90–1077.80 µS cm⁻¹ and resistivity 0.928–1.016 kΩ cm. These results support the use of coupled temporal monitoring, multivariate analysis and kinetic modeling for laboratory-scale optimization of Azolla biomass production. Full article

The industrial scalability and economic competitiveness of biomass-to-bioenergy and biorefinery systems depend on reliable feedstock supply, consistent biomass quality, and efficient logistics. An aspect that remains underexplored in biomass-to-biorefinery supply chain optimization is the incorporation of biomass quality uncertainty into decision-making models. Biomass quality characteristics, including ash content, moisture, chemical composition, and dry matter loss, can influence storage, preprocessing, transportation, conversion efficiency, biorefinery yields, process reliability, and overall energy utilization. Although these characteristics are difficult to model due to their spatial, temporal, and operational variability, ignoring their effects can lead to suboptimal supply-chain designs, inaccurate cost estimates, and unrealistic assessments of biorefinery performance. This paper reviews the treatment of biomass quality characteristics in the literature on quantitative modeling and analysis of biomass-to-biorefinery supply chains. Positioned from an Operational Research (OR) perspective, this review emphasizes mathematical modeling, computer simulation, optimization, and decision-support approaches for biomass-to-bioenergy systems. A total of 71 English-language published articles are reviewed and classified according to modeling approach and quality characteristic(s) considered. Across the selected literature that quantified biomass quality effects, cost reductions along supply chain operations ranging from 6% to 31% were reported when quality-aware models were compared with approaches that ignored quality or assumed unrealistic biomass quality characteristics. Despite these findings, biomass quality remains underrepresented in current analytical models; ash content, dry matter loss, and chemical composition were considered in only 10.4%, 4.3%, and 0.9% of the reviewed literature, respectively. This review summarizes the current state of research and outlines a future research agenda for integrating biomass quality control, uncertainty modeling, and optimization into scalable bioenergy and biorefinery systems. Full article

Climate change is altering soil organic carbon stocks and the associated carbon fluxes of cropland ecosystems—including organic matter mineralization, microbial respiration rates, and CO₂ emissions—through shifts in temperature and moisture regimes. Ecosystem respiration, the main pathway linking terrestrial carbon pools to atmospheric CO₂, directly governs the carbon source–sink balance of croplands. As integral components of the agroecosystem, soil microorganisms directly participate in ecosystem respiration and organic carbon transformation: they contribute to heterotrophic respiration through the decomposition of organic matter, while also synthesizing new organic compounds, forming microbial biomass, and promoting organic carbon stabilization, with their community composition and metabolic activity adjusting to changing environmental conditions. To synthesize research progress and clarify how the field has evolved over the past three decades, we analyzed 290 publications (1991–2025) from the Web of Science Core Collection, combining bibliometric tools (CiteSpace 7.0, VOSviewer 1.6.20) with a structured evidence synthesis to map the research landscape, knowledge structure, hotspot evolution, and mechanistic understanding of the microbial processes underlying cropland ecosystem respiration. Publication output has grown steadily, led by China (161 publications; 55.5%) and the United States (47; 16.2%), which together account for 71.7% of the sample. The knowledge structure has coalesced around five core themes (ecosystem respiration, soil microbial communities, soil organic carbon, carbon cycling, and agricultural management), corresponding to 14 major thematic clusters (Q = 0.668, S = 0.778). Rather than strictly sequential stages, these thematic areas developed largely in parallel, with a gradual shift in research emphasis over time: early work centered on fundamental carbon-cycle processes, including soil respiration flux, organic matter decomposition, and CO₂ release, whereas later research increasingly emphasized microbial community structure, functional mechanisms, carbon use efficiency, soil organic carbon stabilization, carbon sequestration, fungal communities, and ecological stoichiometry. The responses of cropland respiration to climate change are context-dependent: under specific conditions their direction and magnitude may be dominated by a single limiting factor, whereas overall they emerge from the coordinated interplay of temperature, moisture, substrate supply, and agricultural management, within which microbial processes play a central but still incompletely resolved role. Future research should prioritize long-term in situ observations, multi-factor coupling experiments, and functional validation of microbial processes, and integrate microbial mechanisms into ecosystem models to strengthen predictions of cropland carbon cycling and support agricultural emission reduction, carbon sequestration, and sustainable management. Full article

The level of salt tolerance of rice varies with the developmental stage. The information on the tolerance of rice at each stage is valuable for breeding and planning in cultural management to obtain the optimal growth and yield in salt-affected areas. The objectives of this study were to compare the salt tolerance and physiological- and yield-related responses at three growth stages of the salt-sensitive Thai jasmine rice, KDML105, with its genetically improved variety RD73 (a registered commercial variety) and TSKC1-144 (a breeding line), both containing Pokkali-derived salt-tolerant QTL. The young hydroponically grown seedlings of TSKC1-144 treated with 150 mM NaCl were highly tolerant, while KDML105 was highly sensitive and RD73 was moderately tolerant. At the vegetative stage, KDML105 exhibited more growth and leaf physiological damage, showing the highest percentage reductions in the net photosynthesis rate (Pn), leaf relative water content (RWC), and shoot and total plant dry weight, but the highest increase in leaf electrolyte leakage (EL) and the highest leaf Na⁺/K⁺ ratio. During the reproductive phase, salt stress did not significantly induce physiological damage to the flag leaves, except for Pn, which was significantly reduced, particularly for KDML105. Both RD73 and TSKC1-144 exhibited lower biomass reductions and higher yields and yield components than KDML105. Compared with TSKC1-144, RD73 produced a lower grain number panicle⁻¹, grain weight panicle⁻¹, and lower 100-grain weight but 34% more panicles; therefore, it yielded a higher grain weight plant⁻¹ (27.57 cf. 20.93 g). The most prominent trait that conferred a greater salt tolerance to RD73 and TSKC1-144 compared with KDML105 was the more efficient Na⁺ exclusion. Taking their tolerance at all growth stages into consideration, RD73 and TSKC1-144 are deemed suitable for growing under rain-fed conditions where the intensity of the soil salinity fluctuates throughout the growing season. Full article