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9 pages, 1056 KiB  
Article
Study of High-Altitude Coplanarity Phenomena in Super-High-Energy EAS Cores with a Thick Calorimeter
by Rauf Mukhamedshin, Turlan Sadykov, Vladimir Galkin, Alia Argynova, Aidana Almenova, Dauren Muratov, Khanshaiym Makhmet, Valery Zhukov, Vladimir Ryabov, Vyacheslav Piscal, Yernar Tautayev and Zhakypbek Sadykov
Particles 2025, 8(3), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles8030074 - 4 Aug 2025
Abstract
A number of phenomena were observed in experiments on the study of cosmic rays at mountain altitudes and in the stratosphere at ultra-high energies; in particular, the coplanarity of the most energetic particles and local subcascades in the so-called families of γ-rays and [...] Read more.
A number of phenomena were observed in experiments on the study of cosmic rays at mountain altitudes and in the stratosphere at ultra-high energies; in particular, the coplanarity of the most energetic particles and local subcascades in the so-called families of γ-rays and hadrons in the cores of extensive air showers at E0 ≳ 2·1015 eV (√s ≳ 2 TeV). These effects are not described by theoretical models. To explain this phenomenon, it may be necessary to introduce a new process of generating the most energetic particles in the interactions of hadrons with the nuclei of atmospheric atoms. A new experimental array of cosmic ray detectors, including the ADRON-55 ionization calorimeter, has been created to study processes in EAS cores at ultra-high energies. The possibility of using it to study the coplanarity effect is being considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Experimental Physics and Instrumentation)
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17 pages, 838 KiB  
Article
A Scintillation Hodoscope for Measuring the Flux of Cosmic Ray Muons at the Tien Shan High Mountain Station
by Alexander Shepetov, Aliya Baktoraz, Orazaly Kalikulov, Svetlana Mamina, Yerzhan Mukhamejanov, Kanat Mukashev, Vladimir Ryabov, Nurzhan Saduyev, Turlan Sadykov, Saken Shinbulatov, Tairzhan Skokbayev, Ivan Sopko, Shynbolat Utey, Ludmila Vildanova, Nurzhan Yerezhep and Valery Zhukov
Particles 2025, 8(3), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles8030073 - 4 Aug 2025
Abstract
For further investigation of the properties of the muon component in the core regions of extensive air showers (EASs), a new underground hodoscopic set-up with a total sensitive area of 22 m2 was built at the Tien Shan High Mountain Cosmic Ray [...] Read more.
For further investigation of the properties of the muon component in the core regions of extensive air showers (EASs), a new underground hodoscopic set-up with a total sensitive area of 22 m2 was built at the Tien Shan High Mountain Cosmic Ray Station. The hodoscope is based on a set of large-sized scintillation charged particle detectors with an output signal of analog type. The installation ensures a (5–8) GeV energy threshold of muon registration and a ∼104 dynamic range for the measurement of the density of muon flux. A program facility was designed that uses modern machine learning techniques for automated search for the typical scintillation pulse pattern in an oscillogram of a noisy analog signal at the output of the hodoscope detector. The program provides a ∼99% detection probability of useful signals, with a relative share of false positives below 1%, and has a sufficient operation speed for real-time analysis of incoming data. Complete verification of the hardware and software tools was performed under realistic operation conditions, and the results obtained demonstrate the correctness of the proposed method and its practical applicability to the investigation of the muon flux in EASs. In the course of the installation testing, a preliminary physical result was obtained concerning the rise of the multiplicity of muon particles around an EAS core in dependence on the primary EAS energy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Experimental Physics and Instrumentation)
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14 pages, 1816 KiB  
Article
On Optimally Selecting Candidate Detectors with High Predicted Radio Signals from Energetic Cosmic Ray-Induced Extensive Air Showers
by Tudor Alexandru Calafeteanu, Paula Gina Isar and Emil Ioan Slușanschi
Universe 2025, 11(6), 192; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe11060192 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 248
Abstract
Monte Carlo simulations of induced extensive air showers (EASs) by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are widely used in comparison with measured events at experiments to estimate the main cosmic ray characteristics, such as mass, energy, and arrival direction. However, these simulations are computationally expensive, [...] Read more.
Monte Carlo simulations of induced extensive air showers (EASs) by ultra-high-energy cosmic rays are widely used in comparison with measured events at experiments to estimate the main cosmic ray characteristics, such as mass, energy, and arrival direction. However, these simulations are computationally expensive, with running time scaling proportionally with the number of radio antennas included. The AugerPrime upgrade of the Pierre Auger Observatory will feature an array of 1660 radio antennas. As a result, simulating a single EAS using the full detector array will take weeks on a single CPU thread. To reduce the simulation time, detectors are commonly pre-selected based on their proximity to the shower core, using a selection ellipse based on the Cherenkov radiation footprint scaled by a fixed constant factor. While effective, this approach often includes many noisy antennas at high zenith angles, reducing computational efficiency. In this paper, we introduce an optimal method for selecting candidate detectors with high predicted signal-to-noise ratio for proton and iron primary cosmic rays, replacing the constant scaling factor with a function of the zenith angle. This approach significantly reduces simulation time—by more than 50% per CPU thread for the heaviest, most inclined showers—without compromising signal quality. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays)
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17 pages, 7002 KiB  
Article
Geant4 Simulations of a Scintillator Cosmic-Ray Detector
by Jerzy Pryga, Krzysztof Wiesław Woźniak, Łukasz Bibrzycki, Piotr Homola, Sławomir Stuglik, Kévin Almeida Cheminant, Ophir Ruimi and Olaf Bar
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(12), 6652; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15126652 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 503
Abstract
Reliable cosmic-ray measurements require a thorough understanding of the detector used. It is especially important when detectors are very simple like the scintillator detectors considered in this work, which provide only information about the amplitude of the signal generated by a detected particle. [...] Read more.
Reliable cosmic-ray measurements require a thorough understanding of the detector used. It is especially important when detectors are very simple like the scintillator detectors considered in this work, which provide only information about the amplitude of the signal generated by a detected particle. Arrays of these devices can work in coincidental setups to detect Extensive Air Showers caused by high-energy primary cosmic rays. Due to their low cost and simple design, they can be used as elements of large detector networks needed for the search for global correlations in the cosmic rays. To be able to interpret data collected by those arrays, extensive simulations of such detectors are necessary to determine their efficiency of detection of different types of particles. This work presents the results of analysis of such simulations performed using the Geant4 software (v1.1.2). The analysis results lead to the conclusion that detectors feature almost maximal (close to 100%) efficiency for the detection of cosmic-ray muons and electrons with momenta greater than 0.03 GeV/c. Their sensitivity to low-energy electrons and photons is lower but not negligible and has to be properly taken into account during the interpretation of collected data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Applied Physics General)
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12 pages, 2754 KiB  
Article
μPPET: Investigating the Muon Puzzle with J-PET Detectors
by Alessio Porcelli, Kavya Valsan Eliyan, Gabriel Moskal, Nousaba Nasrin Protiti, Diana Laura Sirghi, Ermias Yitayew Beyene, Neha Chug, Catalina Curceanu, Eryk Czerwiński, Manish Das, Marek Gorgol, Jakub Hajduga, Sharareh Jalali, Bożena Jasińska, Krzysztof Kacprzak, Tevfik Kaplanoglu, Łukasz Kapłon, Kamila Kasperska, Aleksander Khreptak, Grzegorz Korcyl, Tomasz Kozik, Deepak Kumar, Karol Kubat, Edward Lisowski, Filip Lisowski, Justyna Mędrala-Sowa, Wiktor Mryka, Simbarashe Moyo, Szymon Niedźwiecki, Szymon Parzych, Piyush Pandey, Elena Perez del Rio, Bartłomiej Rachwał, Martin Rädler, Sushil Sharma, Magdalena Skurzok, Ewa Łucja Stȩpień, Tomasz Szumlak, Pooja Tanty, Keyvan Tayefi Ardebili, Satyam Tiwari and Paweł Moskaladd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Universe 2025, 11(6), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe11060180 - 2 Jun 2025
Viewed by 949
Abstract
The μPPET [mu(μ)on Probe with J-PET] project aims to investigate the “Muon Puzzle” seen in cosmic ray air showers. This puzzle arises from the observation of a significantly larger number of muons on Earth’s surface than that predicted by the [...] Read more.
The μPPET [mu(μ)on Probe with J-PET] project aims to investigate the “Muon Puzzle” seen in cosmic ray air showers. This puzzle arises from the observation of a significantly larger number of muons on Earth’s surface than that predicted by the current theoretical models. The investigated hypothesis is based on recently observed asymmetries in the parameters for the strong interaction cross-section and trajectory of an outgoing particle due to projectile–target polarization. The measurements require detailed information about muons at the ground level, including their track and charge distributions. To achieve this, the two PET scanners developed at the Jagiellonian University in Krakow (Poland), the J-PET detectors, will be employed, taking advantage of their well-known resolution and convenient location for detecting muons that reach long depths in the atmosphere. One station will be used as a muon tracker, while the second will reconstruct the core of the air shower. In parallel, the existing hadronic interaction models will be modified and fine-tuned based on the experimental results. In this work, we present the conceptualization and preliminary designs of μPPET. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays)
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14 pages, 353 KiB  
Article
Two Approaches to Determining the Shower Size Threshold of a Small EAS Array
by Tadeusz Wibig, Manana Svanidze, Revaz Beradze, Abesalom Iashvili, Valeri Kikvadze and Ia Iashvili
Symmetry 2025, 17(3), 403; https://doi.org/10.3390/sym17030403 - 7 Mar 2025
Viewed by 738
Abstract
We compared two methods for determining the detector performance and the cosmic ray small-surface array aperture. The comparison was performed using the GELATICA network station at Telavi Iakob Gogebashvili State University (hereafter TEL) as an example. The first method is a standard analytical [...] Read more.
We compared two methods for determining the detector performance and the cosmic ray small-surface array aperture. The comparison was performed using the GELATICA network station at Telavi Iakob Gogebashvili State University (hereafter TEL) as an example. The first method is a standard analytical method. It is based on mean values of variables and averaged distributions. This analytical approach to data analysis was the focus of the research carried out within the GELATICA project. The project is a member of the international CREDO (Cosmic-Ray Extremely Distributed Observatory) Collaboration, whose main goal is the detection and global analysis of cosmic ray ensembles. In contrast to the traditional approach, which focuses on the detection of individual cosmic ray extensive air showers, CREDO aims to connect existing and yet-to-be built cosmic ray arrays into a worldwide network, thus creating a scientific tool for the global analysis of ultra-high energy cosmic rays. The present work was the first to compare the determination of the parameters of the extensive air showers recorded by the TEL array with simulation results using the CORSIKA code. The interpretation of the results of the analytical method for the evaluation of detector registration thresholds is generally found to be inconclusive. In order to obtain definitive results, we propose additional measurements and a new method of array detector performance. We show that the energy spectrum obtained analytically is nearly in agreement with that obtained from simulations. Differences are apparent for the primary particle energy threshold. The difference in the overall counting rate for the TEL array is of the order of 4%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Physics)
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17 pages, 921 KiB  
Article
Characterisation of the Atmosphere in Very High Energy Gamma-Astronomy for Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes
by Dijana Dominis Prester, Jan Ebr, Markus Gaug, Alexander Hahn, Ana Babić, Jiří Eliášek, Petr Janeček, Sergey Karpov, Marta Kolarek, Marina Manganaro and Razmik Mirzoyan
Universe 2024, 10(9), 349; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe10090349 - 30 Aug 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1463
Abstract
Ground-based observations of Very High Energy (VHE) gamma rays from extreme astrophysical sources are significantly influenced by atmospheric conditions. This is due to the atmosphere being an integral part of the detector when utilizing Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs). Clouds and dust particles [...] Read more.
Ground-based observations of Very High Energy (VHE) gamma rays from extreme astrophysical sources are significantly influenced by atmospheric conditions. This is due to the atmosphere being an integral part of the detector when utilizing Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescopes (IACTs). Clouds and dust particles diminish atmospheric transmission of Cherenkov light, thereby impacting the reconstruction of the air showers and consequently the reconstructed gamma-ray spectra. Precise measurements of atmospheric transmission above Cherenkov observatories play a pivotal role in the accuracy of the analysed data, among which the corrections of the reconstructed energies and fluxes of incoming gamma rays, and in establishing observation strategies for different types of gamma-ray emitting sources. The Major Atmospheric Gamma Imaging Cherenkov (MAGIC) telescopes and the Cherenkov Telescope Array Observatory (CTAO), both located on the Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (ORM), La Palma, Canary Islands, use different sets of auxiliary instruments for real-time characterisation of the atmosphere. In this paper, historical data taken by MAGIC LIDAR (LIght Detection And Ranging) and CTAO FRAM (F/Photometric Robotic Telescope) are presented. From the atmospheric aerosol transmission profiles measured by the MAGIC LIDAR and CTAO FRAM aerosol optical depth maps, we obtain the characterisation of the clouds above the ORM at La Palma needed for data correction and optimal observation scheduling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Women Physicists in Astrophysics, Cosmology and Particle Physics)
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12 pages, 9394 KiB  
Article
Simulations of the EAS Development in the Atmosphere and Detectors for Experiments with the High-Altitude Ionization Calorimeter ADRON-55
by Turlan Sadykov, Omarkhan Yelemessov, Rauf Mukhamedshin, Vladimir Galkin, Alia Argynova, Korlan Argynova, Khanshaiym Makhmet, Valery Zhukov, Vladimir Ryabov and Yerkin Khussainov
Particles 2024, 7(3), 768-779; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles7030044 - 28 Aug 2024
Viewed by 906
Abstract
To study EAS cores (beams of most energetic particles near the shower axis) at E0 ≳ 1015 eV (√s ≳ 2 TeV), which carry the most valuable information about the types of primary particles and the characteristics of their interactions in [...] Read more.
To study EAS cores (beams of most energetic particles near the shower axis) at E0 ≳ 1015 eV (√s ≳ 2 TeV), which carry the most valuable information about the types of primary particles and the characteristics of their interactions in the atmosphere, a new set of detectors has been developed, including a high-altitude ionization calorimeter “ADRON-55”, located at a high-altitude scientific station on the Tien Shan. The first results of modeling the development of EAS from primary protons, main groups of nuclei and hypothetical strangelets at various energies, related to measurements with the “ADRON-55” calorimeter, are presented. Full article
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10 pages, 3054 KiB  
Article
First Results of the CREDO-Maze Cosmic Ray Project
by Tadeusz Wibig, Michał Karbowiak, Punsiri Dam-O, Karol Jȩdrzejczak, Jari Joutsenvaara, Julia Puputti, Juha Sorri and Ari-Pekka Leppänen
Universe 2024, 10(9), 346; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe10090346 - 28 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1038
Abstract
The CREDO-Maze project is the concept for a network of stations recording local, extensive cosmic ray air showers. Each station consists of four small scintillation detectors and a control unit that monitors the cosmic ray flux 24 h a day and transmits the [...] Read more.
The CREDO-Maze project is the concept for a network of stations recording local, extensive cosmic ray air showers. Each station consists of four small scintillation detectors and a control unit that monitors the cosmic ray flux 24 h a day and transmits the results to the central server. The modular design of each array allows the results to be used in educational classes on nuclear radiation, relativistic physics, and particle physics and as a teaching aid in regular school classrooms and more. As an example, we present here some preliminary results from the CREDO-Maze muon telescope missions to the Arctic and down into a deep salt mine, as well as the first shower-particle correlation measurements from a table-top experiment at Walailak University. These experiments show that the different geometric configurations of the CREDO-Maze detector set can be used for projects beyond the scope of the secondary school curriculum, and they can form the basis of student theses and dissertations at universities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays)
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16 pages, 1918 KiB  
Article
Convolutional Neural Network Processing of Radio Emission for Nuclear Composition Classification of Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays
by Tudor Alexandru Calafeteanu, Paula Gina Isar and Emil Ioan Sluşanschi
Universe 2024, 10(8), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe10080327 - 15 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1454
Abstract
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) are extremely rare energetic particles of ordinary matter in the Universe, traveling astronomical distances before reaching the Earth’s atmosphere. When primary cosmic rays interact with atmospheric nuclei, cascading extensive air showers (EASs) of secondary elementary particles are developed. Radio [...] Read more.
Ultra-high-energy cosmic rays (UHECRs) are extremely rare energetic particles of ordinary matter in the Universe, traveling astronomical distances before reaching the Earth’s atmosphere. When primary cosmic rays interact with atmospheric nuclei, cascading extensive air showers (EASs) of secondary elementary particles are developed. Radio detectors have proven to be a reliable method for reconstructing the properties of EASs, such as the shower’s axis, its energy, and its maximum (Xmax). This aids in understanding fundamental astrophysical phenomena, like active galactic nuclei and gamma-ray bursts. Concurrently, data science has become indispensable in UHECR research. By applying statistical, computational, and deep learning methods to both real-world and simulated radio data, researchers can extract insights and make predictions. We introduce a convolutional neural network (CNN) architecture designed to classify simulated air shower events as either being generated by protons or by iron nuclei. The classification achieved a stable test error of 10%, with Accuracy and F1 scores of 0.9 and an MCC of 0.8. These metrics indicate strong prediction capability for UHECR’s nuclear composition, based on data that can be gathered by detectors at the world’s largest cosmic rays experiment on Earth, the Pierre Auger Observatory, which includes radio antennas, water Cherenkov detectors, and fluorescence telescopes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies in Ultra-High-Energy Cosmic Rays)
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13 pages, 5613 KiB  
Article
Measurements of Decoherence in Small Sea-Level Extensive Air Showers
by Roger Clay
Universe 2024, 10(8), 308; https://doi.org/10.3390/universe10080308 - 25 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1060
Abstract
A study is made of the progressive ‘decoherence’ of cosmic ray extensive air-shower particle-detector signals in small air showers through measurements of coincidence rates for pairs of detectors versus the detector separation. Measurements are made both when only the two separated detectors themselves [...] Read more.
A study is made of the progressive ‘decoherence’ of cosmic ray extensive air-shower particle-detector signals in small air showers through measurements of coincidence rates for pairs of detectors versus the detector separation. Measurements are made both when only the two separated detectors themselves trigger in coincidence, and when that coincidence trigger also requires the detection of a local air shower by a small external air-shower array. The addition of the explicit air-shower trigger ensures that the latter data correspond to showers of a larger particle size, and triggering by very localised shower cores is then unlikely. When including a shower trigger, the decoherence results appear substantially different in form. The coincidence rate between two detectors only can be approximated by a power-law variation with separation distance. When triggering involves an air-shower array, the variation becomes close to an exponential form with characteristic exponent distances varying systematically with increasing detector and air-shower size thresholds. A result is that one can see that small air showers will exhibit clear non-Poissonian density fluctuations near their cores, out to distances of ~5 m, or at shower energies below ~0.05 PeV. These ideas can be helpful in understanding the statistical properties of signals when using large detectors in air-shower arrays. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section High Energy Nuclear and Particle Physics)
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12 pages, 3921 KiB  
Article
First Results of Studying EAS Cores Using a High-Mountain Ionization Calorimeter
by Turlan Sadykov, Rauf Mukhamedshin, Vladimir Galkin, Alia Argynova, Aidana Almenova, Korlan Argynova, Khanshaiym Makhmet, Olga Novolodskaya, Tunyk Idrissova, Valery Zhukov, Vyacheslav Piscal and Zhakypbek Sadykov
Particles 2024, 7(1), 40-51; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles7010003 - 28 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1939
Abstract
In high-altitude experiments to study the central cores of EAS at E0 ≳ 1016 eV (√s ≳ 5 TeV) using X-ray emulsion chambers and ionization calorimeters, phenomena such as the coplanarity of the arrival of the most energetic particles in super [...] Read more.
In high-altitude experiments to study the central cores of EAS at E0 ≳ 1016 eV (√s ≳ 5 TeV) using X-ray emulsion chambers and ionization calorimeters, phenomena such as the coplanarity of the arrival of the most energetic particles in super families of γ-rays and hadrons and a so-called Tien Shan effect (too slow absorption of cascades initiated by high-energy hadrons in the calorimeter) were observed. These effects could not be reproduced within the framework of theoretical models of the 80s and 90s. The coplanarity is explained via a process of coplanar generation of the most energetic secondary particles in interactions of super high-energy hadrons with nuclei of air atoms. Perhaps the Tien Shan effect could be explained using a high cross section for the generation of fragmentation-region charmed hadrons. To study these phenomena, a new set of detectors has been developed, including the world’s highest high-mountain ionization calorimeter, “Hadron-55”. This paper presents the initial experimental results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Techniques for Particle Physics in Space)
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19 pages, 10991 KiB  
Review
Use of Silicon Photomultipliers in the Detectors of the JEM-EUSO Program
by Francesca Bisconti
Instruments 2023, 7(4), 55; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments7040055 - 14 Dec 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2153
Abstract
The JEM-EUSO program aims to study ultra-high energy cosmic rays from space. To achieve this goal, it has realized a series of experiments installed on the ground (EUSO-TA), various on stratospheric balloons (with the most recent one EUSO-SPB2), and inside the International Space [...] Read more.
The JEM-EUSO program aims to study ultra-high energy cosmic rays from space. To achieve this goal, it has realized a series of experiments installed on the ground (EUSO-TA), various on stratospheric balloons (with the most recent one EUSO-SPB2), and inside the International Space Station (Mini-EUSO), in light of future missions such as K-EUSO and POEMMA. At nighttime, these instruments aim to monitor the Earth’s atmosphere measuring fluorescence and Cherenkov light produced by extensive air showers generated both by very high-energy cosmic rays from outside the atmosphere and by neutrino decays. As the two light components differ in duration (order of microseconds for fluorescence light and a few nanoseconds for Cherenkov light) they each require specialized sensors and acquisition electronics. So far, the sensors used for the fluorescence camera are the Multi-Anode Photomultiplier Tubes (MAPMTs), while for the Cherenkov one, new systems based on Silicon PhotoMultipliers (SiPMs) have been developed. In this contribution, a brief review of the experiments is followed by a discussion of the tests performed on the optical sensors. Particular attention is paid to the development, test, and calibration conducted on SiPMs, also in view to optimize the geometry, mass, and weight in light of the installation of mass-critical applications such as balloon- and space-borne instrumentation. Full article
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12 pages, 5273 KiB  
Article
A Compact Particle Detector for Space-Based Applications: Development of a Low-Energy Module (LEM) for the NUSES Space Mission
by Riccardo Nicolaidis, Francesco Nozzoli, Giancarlo Pepponi and on behalf of the NUSES Collaboration
Instruments 2023, 7(4), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/instruments7040040 - 13 Nov 2023
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2778
Abstract
NUSES is a planned space mission aiming to test new observational and technological approaches related to the study of relatively low-energy cosmic rays, gamma rays, and high-energy astrophysical neutrinos. Two scientific payloads will be hosted onboard the NUSES space mission: Terzina and Zirè. [...] Read more.
NUSES is a planned space mission aiming to test new observational and technological approaches related to the study of relatively low-energy cosmic rays, gamma rays, and high-energy astrophysical neutrinos. Two scientific payloads will be hosted onboard the NUSES space mission: Terzina and Zirè. Terzina will be an optical telescope readout by SiPM arrays, for the detection and study of Cerenkov light emitted by Extensive Air Showers generated by high-energy cosmic rays and neutrinos in the atmosphere. Zirè will focus on the detection of protons and electrons up to a few hundred MeV and to 0.1–10 MeV photons and will include the Low Energy Module (LEM). The LEM will be a particle spectrometer devoted to the observation of fluxes of relatively low-energy electrons in the 0.1–7-MeV range and protons in the 3–50 MeV range along the Low Earth Orbit (LEO) followed by the hosting platform. The detection of Particle Bursts (PBs) in this Physics channel of interest could give new insight into the understanding of complex phenomena such as eventual correlations between seismic events or volcanic activity with the collective motion of particles in the plasma populating van Allen belts. With its compact sizes and limited acceptance, the LEM will allow the exploration of hostile environments such as the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) and the inner Van Allen Belt, in which the anticipated electron fluxes are on the order of 106 to 107 electrons per square centimeter per steradian per second. Concerning the vast literature of space-based particle spectrometers, the innovative aspect of the LEM resides in its compactness, within 10 × 10 × 10 cm3, and in its “active collimation” approach dealing with the problem of multiple scattering at these very relatively low energies. In this work, the geometry of the detector, its detection concept, its operation modes, and the hardware adopted will be presented. Some preliminary results from the Monte Carlo simulation (Geant4) will be shown. Full article
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18 pages, 9129 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Interaction of Cosmic Rays with Water by Using an Old-Style Detector and Rossi’s Method
by Marco Arcani, Domenico Liguori and Andrea Grana
Particles 2023, 6(3), 801-818; https://doi.org/10.3390/particles6030051 - 30 Aug 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3791
Abstract
Cosmic ray air showers are a phenomenon that can be observed on Earth when high-energy particles from outer space collide with the Earth’s atmosphere. These energetic particles in space are called primary cosmic rays and consist mainly of protons (about 89%), along with [...] Read more.
Cosmic ray air showers are a phenomenon that can be observed on Earth when high-energy particles from outer space collide with the Earth’s atmosphere. These energetic particles in space are called primary cosmic rays and consist mainly of protons (about 89%), along with nuclei of helium (10%) and heavier nuclei (1%). Particles resulting from interactions in the atmosphere are called secondary cosmic rays. The composition of air showers in the atmosphere can include several high-energy particles such as mesons, electrons, muons, photons, and others, depending on the energy and type of the primary cosmic ray. Other than air, primary cosmic rays can also produce showers of particles when they interact with any type of matter; for instance, particle showers are also produced within the soil of planets without an atmosphere. In the same way, secondary cosmic particles can start showers of tertiary particles in any substance. In the 1930s, Bruno Rossi conducted an experiment to measure the energy loss of secondary cosmic rays passing through thin metal sheets. Surprisingly, he observed that as the thickness of the metal sheets increased, the number of particles emerging from the metal also increased. However, by adding more metal sheets, the number of particles eventually decreased. This was consistent with the expectation that cosmic rays were interacting with the atoms in the metals and losing energy to produce multiple secondary particles. In this paper, we describe a new–old approach for measuring particle showers in water using a cosmic ray telescope and Rossi’s method. Our instrument consists of four Geiger–Müller tubes (GMT) arranged to detect muons and particle showers. GMT sensors are highly sensitive devices capable of detecting electrons and gamma rays with energies ranging from a few tens of keV up to several tens of MeV. Since Rossi studied the effects caused by cosmic rays as they pass through metals, we wondered if the same process could also happen in water. We present results from a series of experiments conducted with this instrument, demonstrating its ability to detect and measure particle showers produced by the interaction of cosmic rays in water with good confidence. To the best of our knowledge, this experiment has never been conducted before. Our approach offers a low-cost and easy-to-use alternative to more sophisticated cosmic ray detectors, making it accessible to a wider range of researchers and students. Full article
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