Search Results (33)

This study illustrates the results of minero-petrographic and microchemical investigations of artificial stone materials (mortars, plasters, and bricks) taken from the Theatrum Marcelli (Rome, Italy). To achieve this objective, the artificial building materials were analysed using Polarized Optical Microscopy (POM) and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) used in backscattered electron (BSE) mode and coupled with an Energy-Dispersive Spectrometer (EDS) after a sampling campaign. The POM was aimed at collecting information on the textural and mineralogical characteristics of the samples (identification of the main minerals constituting the aggregate, grain size and shape, and the evaluation of the binder/aggregate ratio). The data also supported technological assessments through the characterization of the raw materials used for the manufacture of the mortars/plasters. Furthermore, the SEM-EDS investigations revealed the chemical composition of both the aggregate and the binder, which was useful for estimating their hydraulicity index (HI). The diagnostic campaign allowed us to obtain interesting information on the plasters/mortars used in the Theatrum Marcelli, together with their probable production technology. In particular, the raw materials were quite homogeneous, thus confirming the traditional methodology used in Roman times to create natural hydraulic mortars by the addition of pozzolanic volcanic material to aerial lime. The volcanic component of the aggregate seems to be compatible with the ultrapotassic products of the Roman Magmatic Province—likely with the Pozzolane Rosse pyroclastic deposit of the Alban Hills district. Full article

The paper focuses on the question of how the application of a multilevel, integrated, and territorial approach can contribute to the protection of cultural heritage through planning instruments in Serbia. The principles of territorialization, integration and digitalization highlighted in the recent strategic documents of the Republic of Serbia are related to international recommendations and theoretical concepts and analyzed with regards to the possibilities of their implementation in planning methodology. The case study is the spatial plan for the Djerdap National Park, a special purpose area with already recognized international and national importance. The research suggests that the encompassed cultural heritage, except the Roman limes, is still recognized at the level of individual entities. The study emphasizes the importance of aligning all levels of governance to safeguard the whole spatial entity rather than focusing solely on its particular areas. The international and national significance of the planning area contributes to the strengthening of awareness of heritage and its institutional protection. However, the vitality of the area, which is key to its sustainable development, comes from the local level. Planning documents contribute to the integration of local values and local communities into development programs and projects. Full article

This paper presents the preliminary results of an investigation on the unexplored topic of polychromy on provincial stone sculptures from the Roman provinces in Germania through the innovative application of heritage materials science techniques. A group of three life-sized statues dating to the 1st Century CE recovered from Ingelheim, near Mainz, retains remarkably well-preserved traces of pigments. These are ripe for emerging non-invasive technologies supplemented by micro-sampling to validate results and provide information relating to mixing and layering not available to the naked eye. The most strikingly visible areas of extant polychromy were retained on the sculpture of a young woman, reported on here as the first phase of this programme of research. The results suggest that the statue was originally covered in a gypsum layer before the application of complex and diverse recipes of pigment applied as mixtures and in layers to create required hues and shadowing on sculpted features. The palette includes ochres and green earth mixed with small amounts of minium (red lead), realgar and lapis lazuli (ultramarine blue) added to create skin tones, and a vibrant blue-green tunic created from Egyptian blue, bone black, ochres, cinnabar and green earth; the palla and peplos contained ochres, bone black, and orpiment, and mixes of these created the detail of coloured jewellery. Of great interest was the detection of bone black on many features, particularly as a shading agent to enhance sculpted features, such as folds in cloth, providing a more realistic and flowing articulation. This is a revolutionary observation that provides previously unexplored insights into artistic polychromic practice in Antiquity. Full article

The archaeological site of villa Horta da Torre in Portugal reveals distinctive architectural features within the context of Roman villae in Hispania. Notably, the triclinium was designed with an artificial cascade originating from a double apse wall, and the walls were adorned with mosaic tessellae panels and marble skirting. During the Roman era, the surrounding area belonged to the former province of Lusitania, with Augusta Emerita serving as its capital. This study examines 11 mortar samples from various contexts and functions, such as masonry, preparatory, render, and opus signinum mortars. A set of complementary analytical techniques was employed to determine the textural and mineralogical compositions of the mortars. The aim was to gain insights into the production techniques and the selection of raw materials within the geological context of this rural construction. It was observed that the processing of raw materials and production techniques did not always adhere to the rules of Vitruvius. A comparison with other villas revealed comparatively less meticulous attention to sand selection and precise layering for mural painting. Nevertheless, it was noted that in preparatory layers for the supranucleus and nucleus tesserae, ceramic pieces were intentionally added to improve the mortar. The binder used was calcitic lime, likely obtained from locally sourced limestone. The nature of aggregates is diversified but consistent with the local geological provenance within a radius of less than 3 km, in accordance with two sand exploration sites. This research aligns with the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, contributing specifically to SDG 11 and Target 11.4, which “aims to strengthen efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage”. Full article

Natural cement, also known as “Roman cement”, was used across Europe during a historic period, mainly in many building facades, due to its hydraulic properties and aesthetic qualities. In Portugal, the use of natural cement occurred in buildings from the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, a period during which the use of lime binders decreased and before the massive use of Portland cement. Recent conservation and rehabilitation actions resulting from necessary interventions in heritage buildings from this period have played an important role in revealing evidence of the use of natural cement and clarifying the lacunae of information about this material. Due to the inadequate use of reparation materials in previous conservation and rehabilitation interventions, this study summarizes the historical production, study, and use of natural cement in Portugal. Natural cement results from the calcination of clay-rich limestone (marlstone) without any compositional changes after extraction, distinguishing itself from hydraulic lime due to its higher clay content and allowing for the formation of higher quantities of hydraulic reactive phases without free lime. Although this topic has been approached at a European level, mainly focusing on the production and use of natural cement in Central Europe, in Portugal, it is still necessary to produce and disseminate information on this specific subject. Therefore, this study focuses on the evolution of cement production in Portugal and an analysis of the existing knowledge of the binders used in architectural heritage based on the scientific and historical bibliography. Full article

This paper presents the first results of a current interdisciplinary research project on the polychromy of Roman provincial stone artefacts in selected areas of the Danubian provinces (PolychroMon). The statuary group of Minerva and the Genius immunium from Carnuntum (Archaeological Museum Carnuntinum inv. CAR-S-48) is dated to the second half of the second century AD and still retains traces of the original polychromy. The aim was to focus on non-invasive techniques and to employ micro-invasive methods for necessary cross-checking and gaining information otherwise not accessible. The investigation revealed that paint was applied on a layer of white lime wash. Additionally, the object shows several traces of Egyptian blue, which was mainly detected in Minerva’s and the Genius’ clothes. Other pigments whose traces were found on the sculpture include green earth, yellow and red ochre, as well as red lead and carbon black. Microscopic analysis confirms the presence of modern-age compounds as well (barium sulphate and zinc oxide) used for modern retouches. Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry revealed the use of egg as the major proteinaceous binding medium in the red lead polychromy. Full article

This study examines the mortar materials used in the construction of the walls at the Archaeological Roman Fortification site (Ovidiu, Romania) on the shore of Siutghiol Lake. Several analyses were conducted to determine the mortars’ basic physical properties, mineralogical composition, and microstructural characteristics in order to describe the mortars used in the construction of the Roman fortress. The investigation utilized X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM-EDAX), and differential thermal analysis (TGA-DTA). The results indicated that siliceous aggregates and lime binders were used in the production of the studied mortars, the structure was constructed in the sixth century, and the raw materials used to construct the site are of local origin. Using the methods mentioned above, there is the possibility of recreating the fortification’s mortar formula using contemporary materials and recommending intervention materials for the preservation of the archaeology of the Roman Fortification. Furthermore, this study opens up many other research opportunities regarding the reuse of mortars extracted from archaeological sites in the rehabilitation process by integrating them into new mortar recipes that can then be tested to compare the results with those obtained from standardized recipes. Full article

During the MoDeCo2000 scientific and research project on mortars used in the territory of the Roman Danube Limes in Serbia, the biggest challenge was the quest for the provenance of raw materials. The area where Viminacium, the largest city in the province of Moesia Superior developed, with millennial continuity of land use and settlement, was selected as research case study and is presented in this research. People throughout history have always used what they had at hand, and the building remains were not only reused but also recycled for new constructions. Thus, the building material of Roman Viminacium has survived in the landscape through the in situ preserved remains of Roman buildings, as well as in the structures from the later periods, up to today. To the best of our knowledge, the use of natural sediments baked during the self-combustion or combustion of underneath layers (coal in our case) for the purpose of construction was extremely rare in the Roman Empire. In this study, we follow the presence of this type of material precisely in Viminacium construction, naming it natural brick, while focusing on its potential use in lime mortars whose production was perfected in the Roman period and has never been surpassed afterward. Archaeological contexts in which this material was found have been studied, along with simultaneous work in the laboratory and in the field during the research and experimental use of the natural brick in lime mortars. We sought to determine whether this material could have been recognised by Romans in Viminacium as a potential valuable pozzolanic component of mortar, along with or instead of fired brick, being locally available and recyclable. The final confirmation of its pozzolanic features and later discussion open completely new directions for the future research of Viminacium lime mortars. Full article

The popularity of natural cement (Roman cement) in buildings from the late 19th and the beginning of the 20th century and the high diversity of characteristics of natural cement demand research of mortar and binders used in the buildings of this period in Portugal. Understanding the type of binder used in the historic buildings will help the project/intervention team to make the best decisions in terms of the development of compatible mortars for historical conservation purposes. Casa Barbot is one of the Art Nouveau examples of the beginning of the 20th century in Portugal. The garden of this building is characterized by peculiar elements in terms of materials and architecture. Full characterization of the mortars employed in the construction of this building as well as identification of the used binder is the main objective of this study. The study comprises a wide range of laboratory characterization techniques such as X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD), petrography, open porosity, density, water absorption by capillarity, and compressive strength. The results show the diversity of compositional characteristics in the mortars used in the decorative elements in the period garden of Casa Barbot. All mortars are composed of Portland cement with a mix of additives such as blast furnace slag, limestone filler, air lime, and the occasional presence of charcoal. The results raise doubt about the use of natural cement as stated in the historical documents. This study will broaden the scientific knowledge of the materials of that period in Portugal to provide a comprehensive plan for the preservation of historical buildings. Full article

For over a thousand years, many ancient cements have remained durable despite long-term exposure to atmospheric or humid agents. This review paper summarizes technologies of worldwide ancient architectures which have shown remarkable durability that has preserved them over thousands of years of constant erosion. We aim to identify the influence of organic and inorganic additions in altering cement properties and take these lost and forgotten technologies to the production frontline. The types of additions were usually decided based on the local environment and purpose of the structure. The ancient Romans built magnificent structures by making hydraulic cement using volcanic ash. The ancient Chinese introduced sticky rice and other local materials to improve the properties of pure lime cement. A variety of organic and inorganic additions used in traditional lime cement not only changes its properties but also improves its durability for centuries. The benefits they bring to cement may also be useful in enzyme-induced carbonate precipitation (EICP) and microbially induced carbonate precipitation (MICP) fields. For instance, sticky rice has been confirmed to play a crucial role in regulating calcite crystal growth and providing interior hydrophobic conditions, which contribute to improving the strength and durability of EICP- and MICP-treated samples in a sustainable way. Full article

Situated on the left bank of the Sabato river, the city of Abellinum (Campania region, southern Italy) represents a tangible testimony to the influence of the Roman civilization in Irpinia. At the site, where the remains of the public area of the town are preserved, archaeological excavations unearthed a monumental Pompeian domus, likely owned by Marcus Vipsanius Primigenius, a freedman of Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus. The rooms preserved fine wall paintings of 3rd and 4th Pompeian style, reflecting the social status of the owner. From four rooms overlooking the peristyle, eight specimens of decorated plasters were collected, and petrographic and spectroscopic analyses were carried out to investigate the plastering and painting technology. Thin sections of all plasters depicted a multilayer technology, although differences in mix designs of the supports were highlighted. Some samples are pozzolanic plasters, containing volcanic aggregate, others can be classified as cocciopesto because of the presence of ceramic fragments mixed to the volcanic aggregate. Finally, the presence of marble powder also permitted the identification of marmorino. Moreover, the pigments, applied using a fresco or lime-painting techniques, consist of pure or mixed Fe- and Cu-based pigments to obtain yellow, orange, red, pink, and blue decorations. Full article

Roman Limesgebiet was both a border between the Greco–Roman world and barbaricum, but also the contact area between these two parts of the ancient oicumene. In Moesia Inferior, this area was established after the Roman conquest in the 1st century AD, in order to defend the Danube border. This article analyses segments of the cultural landscape development in the Roman Danube limes: e.g., the animal resources of subsistence as a paleoeconomy component and reconstruction of the environmental context in the area. The settlements under archaeozoological study are: Sacidava, Capidava, Dinogetia, Noviodunum, Aegyssus, and Halmyris. The settlements have exploited a relatively large faunal spectrum, with taxa of 19 mammals being identified. Animal husbandry had a major importance in paleoeconomy and was focused on cattle, sheep/goat, and pig; other domestic species are horse, donkey, dog, and cat. The hunting is of small importance, according to the frequency of animal remains, and the forest species are dominant. Red deer and wild boar are present in all assemblages, and they are the dominant wild species in terms of frequency; roe deer, hare, wolf, aurochs, fox, beaver, badger, Eurasian otter, and pine marten have been also identified. Aquatic resources are represented by molluscs and fish. Full article

The increasing availability of multiplatform, multiband, very-high-resolution (VHR) satellite synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data has attracted the attention of a growing number of scientists and archeologists. In particular, over the last two decades, archeological research has benefited from SAR development mainly due to its unique ability to acquire scenes both at night and during the day under all weather conditions, its penetration capability, and the provided polarimetric and interferometric information. This paper explored the potential of a novel method (nonlocal (NL)-SAR) using TerraSAR-X (TSX) and Constellation of Small Satellites for Mediterranean Basin Observation (COSMO)-SkyMed (CSK) data to detect buried archeological remains in steep, rugged terrain. In this investigation, two test sites were selected in southern Tunisia, home to some of the most valuable and well-preserved limes from the Roman Empire. To enhance the subtle signals linked to archeological features, the speckle noise introduced into SAR data by the environment and SAR system must be mitigated. Accordingly, the NL-SAR method was applied to SAR data pertaining to these two significant test sites. Overall, the investigation (i) revealed a fortified settlement from the Roman Empire and (ii) identified an unknown urban area abandoned during this period via a field survey, thus successfully confirming the capability of SAR data to reveal unknown, concealed archeological sites, even in areas with a complex topography. Full article

This study reports the results obtained on seventeen glass finds collected from the archaeological site of Muricelle near Cosenza in Calabria (Italy), dated between the first and third century AD. Chemical characterization was undertaken by using an electron probe micro analyser (EPMA). The glasses showed a soda–lime–silica composition indicating the use of the natron as a flux. The comparison between the collected data and those on coeval finds available from the literature allowed us to subdivide the Muricelle glass into three compositional groups: (1) Mn_a, classified as Roman-Mn glasses; (2) Mn_b, which can be compared to the Mn-unintentionally coloured Roman glasses; and (3) Sb + Mn, obtained by the recycling of the Sb and Mn Roman-type glasses. These groups were different not only with respect to the contents and the types of decolourants but also for soda, lime, and aluminium contents, highlighting the use of different raw materials in the primary glass production and also indicating the procedures used in secondary glass production. The compositional characteristics suggested the Levant region as the primary glass source for the Mn_a and Mn_b groups. On the other hand, the Sb + Mn group was obtained through recycling, involving the melting and mixing of two types of primary glass (Sb-decolourised and Mn-decolourised) of Egyptian and Levantine origins, respectively. Full article

This study deals with the mortars and subordinately rocks collected from the archaeological site of Cap de Forma, that is a “Bien de Interés Cultural” located on a cape along the southeastern coast of Menorca (Balearic Islands, Spain). Cap de Forma consists of different structures belonging to different periods and civilization phases: a fortified settlement of Talaiotic age, built in cyclopean technique and including three rooms and a rainwater cistern; a nearby necropolis of tombs (cuevas) excavated into the cliff; a more recent site occupancy testified by plastering of the cistern; a house-fort (pecheña casa-quartel), a lookout point of the 17th–18th century. Compositional features and mineralogy of mortars and rocks were investigated by optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Physical properties (density, porosity, water saturation and water saturation coefficients and mechanical strength) were also determined. This work is aimed at characterizing these archaeologic remains to understand the building technique, the choice of raw materials and possibly their provenance, taking into account the age and civilization they belong to. Results indicate that cocciopesto-rich mortars were used in the cistern watertight and other ancient structures linking from a Roman age. The cocciopesto seems to derive from local pottery even if some evidence would suggest the contrary, whereas the source of the binder is definitely the local Mg-rich limestone. The house-fort was plastered with gypsum-based mortars in the 17th–18th century. The most likely source of raw gypsum was the island of Mallorca where some quarries were opened in the same period. Mechanical and physical tests reveal a strong state of decay that requires conservation actions. This work sheds light on a poorly studied monument, better constraining the different phases of its occupation. Some interesting questions, such as the cocciopesto provenance, are still open. Full article