Search Results (489)

Sensor fusion in intelligent suspension systems constitutes a fundamental technology for optimizing vehicle dynamic stability, ride comfort, and occupant safety. By integrating data from multiple sensor modalities, this study proposes a hierarchical multi-sensor fusion framework for active suspension control, aiming to enhance control precision. Initially, a binocular vision system is employed for target detection, enabling the identification of lane curvature initiation points and speed bumps, with real-time distance measurements. Subsequently, the integration of Global Positioning System (GPS) and inertial measurement unit (IMU) data facilitates the extraction of road elevation profiles ahead of the vehicle. A BP-PID control strategy is implemented to formulate mode-switching rules for the active suspension under three distinct road conditions: flat road, curved road, and obstacle road. Additionally, an ant colony optimization algorithm is utilized to fine-tune four suspension parameters. Utilizing the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation platform, the observed reductions in vertical, pitch, and roll accelerations were 5.37%, 9.63%, and 11.58%, respectively, thereby substantiating the efficacy and robustness of this approach. Full article

The increasing complexity of modern automotive lighting systems requires advanced validation strategies that ensure both functional performance and regulatory compliance. This study presents a structured integration of Software-in-the-Loop (SiL) and Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) testing within a digital twin (DT) framework for validating headlamp systems. A gated validation process (G10–G120) is proposed, aligning each development phase with corresponding simulation stages from early requirements and concept validation to real-world scenario testing and continuous integration. A key principle of this approach is the adoption of a framework built upon the V-Cycle, adapted to integrate DT technology with SiL and HiL workflows. This architectural configuration ensures a continuous data flow between the physical system, the digital twin, and embedded software components, enabling real-time feedback, iterative model refinement, and traceable system verification throughout the development lifecycle. The paper also explores strategies for effective DT integration, such as digital twin-as-a-service, which combines virtual testing with physical validation to support earlier fault detection, streamlined simulation workflows, and reduced dependency on physical prototypes during lighting system development. Unlike the existing literature, which often treats SiL, HiL, and DTs in isolation, this work proposes a unified, domain-specific validation framework. The methodology addresses a critical gap by aligning simulation-based testing with development milestones and regulatory standards, offering a foundation for industrial adoption. Full article

Modern microgrids face critical challenges in maintaining stability and efficiency due to renewable energy intermittency and dynamic load demands. This paper proposes a novel real-time energy management framework that synergizes a bio-inspired T-Cell optimization algorithm with decentralized voltage-based droop control to address these challenges. A JADE-based multi-agent system (MAS) orchestrates coordination between the T-Cell optimizer and edge-level controllers, enabling scalable and fault-tolerant decision-making. The T-Cell algorithm, inspired by adaptive immune system dynamics, optimizes global power distribution through the MAS platform, while droop control ensures local voltage stability via autonomous adjustments by distributed energy resources (DERs). The framework is rigorously validated through Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) testing using OPAL-RT, which interfaces MATLAB/Simulink models with Raspberry Pi for real-time communication (MQTT/Modbus protocols). Experimental results demonstrate a 91% reduction in grid dependency, 70% mitigation of voltage fluctuations, and a 93% self-consumption rate, significantly enhancing power quality and resilience. By integrating centralized optimization with decentralized control through MAS coordination, the hybrid approach achieves scalable, self-organizing microgrid operation under variable generation and load conditions. This work advances the practical deployment of adaptive energy management systems, offering a robust solution for sustainable and resilient microgrids. Full article

The properties of Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) for the development of controllers, together with electronic emulation of physical process by Digital Twins (DT) significantly enhance the optimization of design and implementation in nonlinear control applications. The study emphasizes the use of the Raspberry Pi (RBP), a low-cost and portable electronic board for two interrelated goals: (a) the Electronic Control Unit (ECU-RBP) implementing a Lyapunov-based Controller (LBC) for nonlinear trajectory tracking of P3DX wheeled robots, and (b) the Digital Twin (DT-RPB) emulating the real robot behavior, which is remotely connected to the control unit. ECU-RBP, DT-RBP and real robot are connected as nodes within the same wireless network, enhancing interaction between the three physical elements. The development process is supported by the Matlab/Simulink environment and the associated packages for the specified electronic board. Following testing of the real robot from the ECU-RBP in an open loop, the model is identified and integrated into the DT-RBP to replicate its functionality. The LBC solution, which has also been validated through simulation, is implemented in the ECU-RBP to examine the closed-loop control according to the HIL strategy. Finally, the study evaluates the effectiveness of the HIL approach by comparing the results obtained from the application of the LBC, as implemented in the ECU-RBP to both the real robot and its DT. Full article

LCL (inductor–capacitor–inductor) filters are widely used in grid-connected inverters, particularly in electric vehicle (EV) battery-to-grid systems, for harmonic suppression but introduce resonance issues that compromise stability. This study presents a novel sensorless active damping strategy based on μ-synthesis control for EV batteries connected to the grid via LCL filters, eliminating the need for additional current sensors while preserving harmonic attenuation. A comprehensive state–space and process noise model enables accurate capacitor current estimation using only grid current and point-of-common-coupling (PCC) voltage measurements. The proposed method maintains robust performance under ±60% LCL parameter variations and integrates a proportional-resonant (PR) current controller for resonance suppression. Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) validation demonstrates enhanced stability in dynamic grid conditions, with total harmonic distortion (THD) below 5% (IEEE 1547-compliant) and current tracking error < 0.06 A. Full article

The quality of a grid-injected current in LCL-type grid-connected inverters (GCI) degrades under ultra-weak grid conditions, posing serious challenges to the stability of the GCI system. For this purpose, the sliding mode control (SMC) approach has been utilized to integrate DC energy seamlessly into the grid. The control performance of a GCI equipped with an LCL filter is greatly reduced when it is operating in a power grid with varying impedance and fluctuating grid voltages, which may result in poor current quality and possible instability in the system. A non-singular double integral terminal sliding mode (DIT-SMC) control is presented in this paper for a three-phase GCI with an LCL filter. The proposed method is presented in the α, β frame of reference without adopting an active or passive damping approach, reducing the computational burden. MATLAB/Simulink Version R2023b is leveraged to simulate the mathematical model of the proposed control system. The capability of the DIT-SMC method is validated through the OPAL-RT hardware-in-loop (HIL) platform. The effectiveness of the proposed method is first compared with SMC and integral terminal SMC, and then the DIT-SMC method is rigorously analyzed under resonance frequency events, grid impedance variation, and grid voltage distortions. It is demonstrated by the experimental results that the proposed control is highly effective in delivering a high-quality current into the grid, in spite of the simultaneous occurrence of power grid impedance variations in 6 mH and large voltage distortions. Full article

Thermal control in rolling mills motors is gaining importance as more and more hard-to-deform steel grades are rolled. The capabilities of diagnostics monitoring also expand as digital IIoT-based technologies are adopted. Electrical drives in modern rolling mills are based on synchronous motors with frequency regulation. Such motors are expensive, while their reliability impacts the metallurgical plant output. Hence, developing the on-line temperature monitoring systems for such motors is extremely urgent. This paper presents a solution applying to synchronous motors of the upper and lower rolls in the horizontal roll stand of plate mill 5000. The installed capacity of each motor is 12 MW. According to the digitalization tendency, on-line monitoring systems should be based on digital shadows (coordinate observers) that are similar to digital twins, widely introduced at metallurgical plants. Modern reliability requirements set the continuous temperature monitoring for stator and rotor windings and iron core. This article is the first to describe a method for calculating thermal loads based on the data sets created during rolling. The authors have developed a thermal state observer based on four-mass model of motor heating built using the Simscape Thermal Models library domains that is part of the MATLAB Simulink. Virtual adjustment of the observer and of the thermal model was performed using hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation. The authors have validated the results by comparing the observer’s values with the actual values measured at control points. The discrete masses heating was studied during the rolling cycle. The stator and rotor winding temperature was analysed at different periods. The authors have concluded that the motors of the upper and lower rolls are in a satisfactory condition. The results of the study conducted generally develop the idea of using object-oriented digital shadows for the industrial electrical equipment. The authors have introduced technologies that improve the reliability of the rolling mills electrical drives which accounts for the innovative development in metallurgy. The authors have also provided recommendations on expanded industrial applications of the research results. Full article

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) are seen as an alternative for heavy-duty transportation electrification. Powered by a green hydrogen source, they can provide high efficiency and low carbon emissions compared to traditional fuels. However, to be competitive, these systems require high reliability when operated in real-life conditions, as well as safe and efficient operating management. In order to achieve these goals, the X-in-the-loop (also called model-based design) methodology is well suited. It has been largely adopted for PEMFC system development and optimisation, as they are complex multi-component systems. In this paper, a systematic analysis of the scientific literature is conducted to review the methodology implementation for the design and improvement of the PEMFC systems. It exposes a precise definition of each development step in the methodology. The analysis shows that it can be employed in different ways, depending on the subsystems considered and the objectives sought. Finally, gaps in the literature and technical challenges for fuel cell systems that should be addressed are identified. Full article

Dual-motor electric vehicles enhance power performance and overall output capabilities by enabling the real-time control of the torque distribution between the front and rear wheels, thereby improving handling, stability, and safety. In addition to increased energy efficiency, a dual-motor system provides redundancy: if one motor fails, the other can still supply partial power, further enhancing driving safety. This study aimed to optimize the energy management strategies of the front- and rear-axis motors, examining the application effects of rule-based control (RBC), global grid search (GGS), and the whale optimization algorithm (WOA). A simulation platform based on MATLAB/Simulink^® (R2021b, MATLAB, Natick, MA, USA) was constructed and validated through hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) testing to ensure the authenticity and reliability of the simulation results. Detailed tests and analyses of the dual-motor system were conducted under FTP-75 driving cycles. Compared to the RBC strategy, GGS and WOA achieved energy efficiency improvements of 9.1% and 8.9%, respectively, in the pure simulation, and 4.2% and 3.8%, respectively, in the HIL simulation. Compared to the pure RBC strategy, the RBC and GGS strategies incorporating regenerative braking achieved energy efficiency improvements of 26.1% and 29.4%, respectively, in the HIL simulation. Overall, GGS and WOA each present distinct advantages, with WOA emerging as a highly promising alternative energy management strategy. Future research should further explore WOA applications to enhance energy savings in real-world vehicle operations. Full article

Virtual synchronous generator (VSG) control has been increasingly utilized for the grid integration of the voltage source inverter (VSI). Under large disturbances, such as voltage sags and grid faults, the VSG synchronization dynamic is highly nonlinear and cannot be evaluated by small-signal-based approaches. Conventionally, the equal area criterion (EAC) is utilized to analyze the transient stability of a synchronous machine or a VSG. However, it is found that the EAC is only valid under special scenarios when the damping effect is ignored. In this case, the EAC will provide conservative predictions and therefore put stringent requirements on the fault-clearing time. This paper reveals that the motion of a pendulum is essentially the same as the VSG swing equation. Due to this, the phase portrait approach, which was used to predict the pendulum motion, can be similarly applied for the VSG transient stability study. Based on the analogical phase portrait analysis, a damping coefficient tuning guideline is proposed, which always guarantees the synchronization stability as long as an equilibrium exists. The aforementioned theoretical findings are finally verified through a grid-connected VSG under the hardware-in-loop (HIL) environment. Full article

Offshore cranes equipped with active motion compensation (AMC) systems play a vital role in marine engineering tasks such as offshore wind turbine maintenance, subsea operations, and dynamic load positioning under wave-induced disturbances. These systems rely on complex hydraulic actuators whose strongly nonlinear dynamics—often described by differential-algebraic equations (DAEs)—impose significant computational burdens, particularly in real-time applications like hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation, digital twins, and model predictive control. To address this bottleneck, we propose a neural network-based surrogate model that approximates the actuator dynamics with high accuracy and low computational cost. By approximately reducing the original DAE model, we obtain a lower-dimensional ordinary differential equations (ODEs) representation, which serves as the foundation for training. The surrogate model includes three hidden layers, demonstrating strong fitting capabilities for the highly nonlinear characteristics of hydraulic systems. Bayesian regularization is adopted to train the surrogate model, effectively preventing overfitting. Simulation experiments verify that the surrogate model reduces the solving time by 95.33%, and the absolute pressure errors for chambers $p_1$ and $p_2$ are controlled within 0.1001 MPa and 0.0093 MPa, respectively. This efficient and scalable surrogate modeling framework possesses significant potential for integrating high-fidelity hydraulic actuator models into real-time digital and control systems for offshore applications. Full article

In this paper, an advanced flight simulation model of the ILR-33 AMBER rocket is shown. The model is designed for Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL) tests of the rocket control system. It permits us to simulate flight dynamics in a 6DOF environment, with consideration of the variable thrust, mass-inertia, and aerodynamics. It reproduces key functionalities of on-board computer and sensors and allows us to reproduce multiple mission scenarios. Simplifying assumptions concerning the environment and coordinate systems were made, reducing calculation costs while preserving key functionalities of the simulation. The control system consists of four movable canards, actuators, and motion controllers. The process of integration between the simulation model and hardware using a real-time computer is shown. Efficient communication between those elements was developed and tested in simulated flight conditions. In the final part, relevant control system HiL tests were presented. An extensive comparison between unguided and guided flight trajectories was performed. The impact of the control system operation on all analyzed parameters is clearly demonstrated. The results confirmed the usefulness of the simulation model for the task it was developed for. The potential of the HiL method in the design of complex control systems for suborbital rockets is proven. Full article

The electrical grid is undergoing increasing integration of decentralized power sources connected to the low-voltage network. In this context, the concept of a microgrid has emerged as a system comprising small-scale energy sources, loads, and storage devices, coordinated to operate as a single controllable entity capable of functioning in either grid-connected or islanded mode. The microgrid may be organized in a centralized configuration, such as a master-slave scheme, wherein the centralized converter, i.e., the grid-forming converter (GFC), plays a pivotal role in ensuring system stability and control. This paper introduces a plug-in repetitive controller (RC) strategy tuned to even harmonic orders for application in a three-phase GFC, diverging from the conventional approach that focuses on odd harmonics. The proposed control is designed within a synchronous reference frame and is targeted at centralized AC microgrids, particularly during islanded operation. Simulation results are presented to assess the microgrid’s power flow and power quality, thereby evaluating the performance of the GFC. Additionally, the proposed control was implemented on a Texas Instruments TMS320F28335 digital signal processor and validated through hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation using the Typhoon HIL 600 platform, considering multiple scenarios with both linear and nonlinear loads. The main results highlight that the RC improves voltage regulation, mitigates harmonic distortion, and increases power delivery capability, thus validating its effectiveness for GFC operation. Full article

This paper presents a novel adaptive twisting sliding mode control strategy combined with a speed-sensorless cascade nonlinear observer for the high-performance control of linear induction motors (LIMs). The primary objective is to achieve accurate speed and rotor flux tracking without relying on mechanical sensors, thereby enhancing system reliability and reducing hardware complexity. For this purpose, a cascade nonlinear observer is designed and applied to the class of nonlinear affine systems representing LIM dynamics. Based on the interconnected form of the LIM mathematical model, the observer simultaneously reconstructs both the motor speed and rotor fluxes in real time. The stability of the proposed cascade observer is analyzed using Lyapunov theory, ensuring the convergence of the estimation errors under bounded disturbances. Complementing the observer, two adaptive gain twisting sliding mode controllers are developed: one for speed tracking and another for flux regulation. These controllers are robust against external disturbances and parameter uncertainties, even when the bounds of such disturbances are unknown. This feature significantly enhances the practical applicability of the control system in real-world industrial environments. To validate the performance and robustness of the proposed control scheme, a hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) experiment was conducted. Comparative studies with existing state-of-the-art sensorless control methods demonstrate that the proposed cascade nonlinear observer-based approach achieves faster convergence, higher estimation accuracy, and better disturbance rejection capabilities, while requiring less computational effort. Full article

Coordinating vehicle handling stability and energy consumption remains a key challenge for distributed driving electric vehicles (DDEVs). In this paper, a hierarchical torque vectoring control strategy is proposed to address this issue. First, a tire road friction coefficient (TRFC) estimator based on the fusion of vision and dynamic is developed to accurately and promptly obtain the TRFC in the upper layer. Second, a direct yaw moment control (DYC) strategy based on the adaptive model predictive control (MPC) is designed to ensure vehicle stability in the middle layer, where tire cornering stiffness is updated dynamically based on the estimated TRFC. Then, the lower layer develops the torque vectoring allocation controller, which comprehensively considers handling stability and energy consumption and distributes the driving torques among the wheels. The weight between stability and economy is coordinated according to the stability boundaries derived from an extended phase-plane correlated with the TRFC. Finally, Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) simulations are conducted to validate the effectiveness of the proposed strategy. The results demonstrate that compared with the conventional stability torque distribution strategy, the proposed control strategy not only reduces the RMSE of sideslip angle by 44.88% but also decreases the motor power consumption by 24.45% under DLC conditions, which indicates that the proposed method can significantly enhance vehicle handling stability while reducing energy consumption. Full article