Search Results (13)

The Curiosity rover, from NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL), has climbed nearly 740 m from its landing location at −4500.971 m in Gale Crater to a location reached on sol 3967 on the slopes of Mt. Sharp at −3765.27 m. We examine the atmospheric pressure, surface and atmospheric temperatures, relative humidity, and water vapor volume mixing ratios from measurements made by the Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS), taken along the trajectory traveled over 3967 sols spanning from late MY31 to mid-MY37, on an interannual scale. The results help us understand the Martian meteorology inside Gale Crater. The atmospheric pressure and temperature changes caused by the elevation variation of the rover show the impact of the altitude change on the atmospheric dynamics. Regarding the rover’s locations for MY32 and MY36, a detailed comparative analysis of the full diurnal cycle is performed for the solstices and equinoxes. These scenarios are examined using the REMS and the Mars Regional Atmospheric Modeling System (MRAMS) data. We compare the REMS and MRAMS data to evaluate their concordance. We present, for the first time, a hypothesis for the existence of the cold pool phenomenon, which also occurs on Earth, based on REMS data. Full article

Gypsum is a common mineral at Gale crater on Mars, currently being explored by the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover, Curiosity. In this paper, we summarize the associations of gypsum with other sulfate minerals (bassanite, anhydrite, jarosite, starkeyite, and kieserite) from the lowest levels of the crater’s northern moat zone (Aeolis Palus) up through ~0.8 km of the stratigraphic section in the lower slopes of the sedimentary mound developed around the central peak, Aeolis Mons (informally, Mount Sharp). The analysis is based on results from the CheMin X-ray diffraction instrument on Curiosity, supplemented with information from the rover’s versatile instrument suite. Gypsum does not occur with the same frequency as less hydrous Ca-sulfates, likely, in most cases, because of its dehydration to bassanite and possibly to anhydrite. All three of these Ca-sulfate phases often occur together and, along with other sulfates, in mixed assemblages that are evidence of limited equilibration on a cold, dry planet. In almost all samples, at least one of the Ca-sulfate minerals is present, except for a very limited interval where jarosite is the major sulfate mineral, with the implication of more acidic groundwater at a much later time in Gale crater’s history. Although observations from orbit reveal a sulfate-rich surface, currently active dark basaltic dunes at Gale crater have only small amounts of a single sulfate mineral, anhydrite. Gale crater has provided the most complete mineralogical analysis of a site on Mars so far, but the data in hand show that Gale crater mineralogy is not a blueprint with planet-wide application. The concurrent study of Jezero crater by the Mars 2020 mission and comparisons to what is believed to be the most extensive deposit of gypsum on Mars, in the dune fields at the north polar ice cap, show significant diversity. Unraveling the stories of gypsum and other sulfates on Mars is just beginning. Full article

This study presents mineral composition estimates of rock and sediment samples analyzed with the CheMin X-ray diffraction instrument on board the NASA Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, in Gale crater, Mars. Mineral composition is estimated using crystal-chemically derived algorithms applied to X-ray diffraction data, specifically unit-cell parameters. The mineral groups characterized include those found in major abundance by the CheMin instrument (i.e., feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and spinel oxide). In addition to estimating the composition of the major mineral phases observed in Gale crater, we place their compositions in a stratigraphic context and provide a comparison to that of martian meteorites. This work provides expanded insights into the mineralogy and chemistry of the martian surface. Full article

For more than a decade, the CheMin X-ray diffraction instrument on the Mars Science Laboratory rover, Curiosity, has been returning definitive and quantitative mineralogical and mineral–chemistry data from ~3.5-billion-year-old (Ga) sediments in Gale crater, Mars. To date, 40 drilled rock samples and three scooped soil samples have been analyzed during the rover’s 30+ km transit. These samples document the mineralogy of over 800 m of flat-lying fluvial, lacustrine, and aeolian sedimentary rocks that comprise the lower strata of the central mound of Gale crater (Aeolis Mons, informally known as Mt. Sharp) and the surrounding plains (Aeolis Palus, informally known as the Bradbury Rise). The principal mineralogy of the sedimentary rocks is of basaltic composition, with evidence of post-depositional diagenetic overprinting. The rocks in many cases preserve much of their primary mineralogy and sedimentary features, suggesting that they were never strongly heated or deformed. Using aeolian soil composition as a proxy for the composition of the deposited and lithified sediment, it appears that, in many cases, the diagenetic changes observed are principally isochemical. Exceptions to this trend include secondary nodules, calcium sulfate veining, and rare Si-rich alteration halos. A surprising and yet poorly understood observation is that nearly all of the ~3.5 Ga sedimentary rocks analyzed to date contain 15–70 wt.% of X-ray amorphous material. Overall, this >800 m section of sedimentary rock explored in lower Mt. Sharp documents a perennial shallow lake environment grading upward into alternating lacustrine/fluvial and aeolian environments, many of which would have been habitable to microbial life. Full article

The Sample Analysis at Mars-Evolved Gas Analyzer (SAM-EGA) on the Curiosity rover detected hydrogen chloride (HCl) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) gas evolutions above 600 °C and 700 °C, respectively, from several drilled rock and soil samples collected in Gale crater, which have been attributed to NaCl and Mg sulfates. Although NaCl and Mg sulfates do not evolve HCl or SO₂ within the SAM temperature range (<~870 °C) when analyzed individually, they may evolve these gases at <870 °C and become detectable by SAM-EGA when mixed. This work aims to determine how Mg sulfate and NaCl interact during heating and how that affects evolved HCl and SO₂ detection temperatures in SAM-EGA. Solid mixtures of NaCl and kieserite were analyzed using a thermogravimeter/differential scanning calorimeter furnace connected to a quadrupole mass spectrometer, configured to operate under similar conditions as SAM, and using X-ray diffraction of heated powders. NaCl analyzed individually did not evolve HCl; however, NaCl/kieserite mixtures evolved HCl releases with peaks above 600 °C. The results suggested that kieserite influenced HCl production from NaCl via two mechanisms: (1) kieserite depressed the melting point of NaCl, making it more reactive with evolved water; and (2) SO₂ from kieserite decomposition reacted with NaCl and water (i.e., Hargreaves reaction). Additionally, NaCl catalyzed the thermal decomposition of kieserite, such that the evolved SO₂ was within the SAM-EGA temperature range. The results demonstrated that SAM-EGA can detect chlorides and Mg sulfates when mixed due to interactions during heating. These phases can provide information on past climate and mineral formation conditions. Full article

The MSL Curiosity rover investigated dark, Mn-P-enriched nodules in shallow lacustrine/fluvial sediments at the Groken site in Glen Torridon, Gale Crater, Mars. Applying all relevant information from the rover, the nodules are interpreted as pseudomorphs after original crystals of vivianite, (Fe²⁺,Mn²⁺)₃(PO₄)₂·8H₂O, that cemented the sediment soon after deposition. The nodules appear to have flat faces and linear boundaries and stand above the surrounding siltstone. ChemCam LIBS (laser-induced breakdown spectrometry) shows that the nodules have MnO abundances approximately twenty times those of the surrounding siltstone matrix, contain little CaO, and have SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ abundances similar to those of the siltstone. A deconvolution of APXS analyses of nodule-bearing targets, interpreted here as representing the nodules’ non-silicate components, shows high concentrations of MnO, P₂O₅, and FeO and a molar ratio P/Mn = 2. Visible to near-infrared reflectance of the nodules (by ChemCam passive and Mastcam multispectral) is dark and relatively flat, consistent with a mixture of host siltstone, hematite, and a dark spectrally bland material (like pyrolusite, MnO₂). A drill sample at the site is shown to contain minimal nodule material, implying that analyses by the CheMin and SAM instruments do not constrain the nodules’ mineralogy or composition. The fact that the nodules contain P and Mn in a small molar integer ratio, P/Mn = 2, suggests that the nodules contained a stoichiometric Mn-phosphate mineral, in which Fe did (i.e., could) not substitute for Mn. The most likely such minerals are laueite and strunzite, Mn²⁺Fe³⁺₂(PO₄)₂(OH)₂·8H₂O and –6H₂O, respectively, which occur on Earth as alteration products of other Mn-bearing phosphates including vivianite. Vivianite is a common primary and diagenetic precipitate from low-oxygen, P-enriched waters. Calculated phase equilibria show Mn-bearing vivianite could be replaced by laueite or strunzite and then by hematite plus pyrolusite as the system became more oxidizing and acidic. These data suggest that the nodules originated as vivianite, forming as euhedral crystals in the sediment, enclosing sediment grains as they grew. After formation, the nodules were oxidized—first to laueite/strunzite yielding the diagnostic P/Mn ratio, and then to hematite plus an undefined Mn oxy-hydroxide (like pyrolusite). The limited occurrence of these Mn-Fe-P nodules, both in space and time (i.e., stratigraphic position), suggests a local control on their origin. By terrestrial analogies, it is possible that the nodules precipitated near a spring or seep of Mn-rich water, generated during alteration of olivine in the underlying sediments. Full article

Sedimentary rocks provide records of past surface and subsurface processes and environments. The first step in the study of the sedimentary rock record of another world is to learn to recognize their occurrences in images from instruments aboard orbiting, flyby, or aerial platforms. For two decades, Mars has been known to have sedimentary rocks; however, planet-wide identification is incomplete. Global coverage at 0.25–6 m/pixel, and observations from the Curiosity rover in Gale crater, expand the ability to recognize Martian sedimentary rocks. No longer limited to cases that are light-toned, lightly cratered, and stratified—or mimic original depositional setting (e.g., lithified deltas)—Martian sedimentary rocks include dark-toned examples, as well as rocks that are erosion-resistant enough to retain small craters as well as do lava flows. Breakdown of conglomerates, breccias, and even some mudstones, can produce a pebbly regolith that imparts a “smooth” appearance in satellite and aerial images. Context is important; sedimentary rocks remain challenging to distinguish from primary igneous rocks in some cases. Detection of ultramafic, mafic, or andesitic compositions do not dictate that a rock is igneous, and clast genesis should be considered separately from the depositional record. Mars likely has much more sedimentary rock than previously recognized. Full article

The Mars Science Laboratory rover Curiosity landed in Gale crater (Mars) in August 2012. It has since been studying the lower part of the 5 km-high sedimentary pile that composes Gale’s central mound, Aeolis Mons. To assess the sedimentary record, the MSL team mainly uses a suite of imagers onboard the rover, providing various pixel sizes and fields of view from close to long-range observations. For this latter, we notably use the Remote Micro Imager (RMI), a subsystem of the ChemCam instrument that acts as 700 mm-focal length telescope, providing the smallest angular pixel size of the set of cameras on the Remote Sensing Mast. The RMI allows observations of remote outcrops up to a few kilometers away from the rover. As retrieving 3D information is critical to characterize the structures of the sedimentary deposits, we describe in this work an experiment aiming at computing for the first time with RMI Digital Outcrop Models of these distant outcrops. We show that Structure-from-Motion photogrammetry can successfully be applied to suitable sets of individual RMI frames to reconstruct the 3D shape and relief of these distant outcrops. These results show that a dedicated set of observations can be envisaged to characterize the most interesting geological features surrounding the rover. Full article

Phyllosilicates, sulfates, and Fe oxides are the most prevalent secondary minerals detected on Mars from orbit and the surface, including in the Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover’s field site at Gale crater. These records of aqueous activity have been investigated in detail in Gale crater, where Curiosity’s X-ray diffractometer allows for direct observation and detailed characterization of mineral structure and abundance. This capability provides critical ground truthing to better understand how to interpret Martian mineralogy inferred from orbital datasets. Curiosity is about to leave behind phyllosilicate-rich strata for more sulfate-rich terrains, while the Mars 2020 Perseverance rover is in its early exploration of ancient sedimentary strata in Jezero crater. It is thus an appropriate time to review Gale crater’s mineral distribution from multiple perspectives, utilizing the range of chemical, mineralogical, and spectral measurements provided by orbital and in situ observations. This review compares orbital predictions of composition in Gale crater with higher fidelity (but more spatially restricted) in situ measurements by Curiosity, and we synthesize how this information contributes to our understanding of water-rock interaction in Gale crater. In the context of combining these disparate spatial scales, we also discuss implications for the larger understanding of martian surface evolution and the need for a wide range of data types and scales to properly reconstruct ancient geologic processes using remote methods. Full article

Curiosity, the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover, landed on Mars in August 2012 to investigate the ~3.5-billion-year-old (Ga) fluvio-lacustrine sedimentary deposits of Aeolis Mons (informally known as Mount Sharp) and the surrounding plains (Aeolis Palus) in Gale crater. After nearly nine years, Curiosity has traversed over 25 km, and the Chemistry and Mineralogy (CheMin) X-ray diffraction instrument on-board Curiosity has analyzed 30 drilled rock and three scooped soil samples to date. The principal strategic goal of the mission is to assess the habitability of Mars in its ancient past. Phyllosilicates are common in ancient Martian terrains dating to ~3.5–4 Ga and were detected from orbit in some of the lower strata of Mount Sharp. Phyllosilicates on Earth are important for harboring and preserving organics. On Mars, phyllosilicates are significant for exploration as they are hypothesized to be a marker for potential habitable environments. CheMin data demonstrate that ancient fluvio-lacustrine rocks in Gale crater contain up to ~35 wt. % phyllosilicates. Phyllosilicates are key indicators of past fluid–rock interactions, and variation in the structure and composition of phyllosilicates in Gale crater suggest changes in past aqueous environments that may have been habitable to microbial life with a variety of possible energy sources. Full article

The Sample Analysis at Mars (SAM) instrument on the Curiosity rover has detected evidence of oxychlorine compounds (i.e., perchlorates and chlorates) in Gale crater, which has implications for past habitability, diagenesis, aqueous processes, interpretation of in situ organic analyses, understanding the martian chlorine cycle, and hazards and resources for future human exploration. Pure oxychlorines and mixtures of oxychlorines with Mars-analog phases have been analyzed for their oxygen (O₂) and hydrogen chloride (HCl) releases on SAM laboratory analog instruments in order to constrain which phases are present in Gale crater. These studies demonstrated that oxychlorines evolve O₂ releases with peaks between ~200 and 600 °C, although the thermal decomposition temperatures and the amount of evolved O₂ decrease when iron phases are present in the sample. Mg and Fe oxychlorines decompose into oxides and release HCl between ~200 and 542 °C. Ca, Na, and K oxychlorines thermally decompose into chlorides and do not evolve HCl by themselves. However, the chlorides (original or from oxychlorine decomposition) can react with water-evolving phases (e.g., phyllosilicates) in the sample and evolve HCl within the temperature range of SAM (<~870 °C). These laboratory analog studies support that the SAM detection of oxychlorine phases is consistent with the presence of Mg, Ca, Na, and K perchlorate and/or chlorate along with possible contributions from adsorbed oxychlorines in Gale crater samples. Full article

To assess Mars’ potential for both harboring life and providing useable resources for future human exploration, it is of paramount importance to comprehend the water situation on the planet. Therefore, studies have been conducted to determine any evidence of past or present water existence on Mars. While the presence of abundant water on Mars very early in its history is widely accepted, on its modern form, only a fraction of this water can be found, as either ice or locked into the structure of Mars’ plentiful water-rich materials. Water on the planet is evaluated through various evidence such as rocks and minerals, Martian achondrites, low volume transient briny outflows (e.g., dune flows, reactivated gullies, slope streaks, etc.), diurnal shallow soil moisture (e.g., measurements by Curiosity and Phoenix Lander), geomorphic representation (possibly from lakes and river valleys), and groundwater, along with further evidence obtained by probe and rover discoveries. One of the most significant lines of evidence is for an ancient streambed in Gale Crater, implying ancient amounts of “vigorous” water on Mars. Long ago, hospitable conditions for microbial life existed on the surface of Mars, as it was likely periodically wet. However, its current dry surface makes it almost impossible as an appropriate environment for living organisms; therefore, scientists have recognized the planet’s subsurface environments as the best potential locations for exploring life on Mars. As a result, modern research has aimed towards discovering underground water, leading to the discovery of a large amount of underground ice in 2016 by NASA, and a subglacial lake in 2018 by Italian scientists. Nevertheless, the presence of life in Mars’ history is still an open question. In this unifying context, the current review summarizes results from a wide variety of studies and reports related to the history of water on Mars, as well as any related discussions on the possibility of living organism existence on the planet. Full article

The first detection of gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) by the Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) rover Curiosity in the Gale Crater, Mars created a profound impact on planetary science and exploration. The unique capability of plasma spectroscopy, which involves in situ elemental analysis in extraterrestrial environments, suggests the presence of water in the red planet based on phase characterization and provides a clue to Martian paleoclimate. The key to gypsum as an ideal paleoclimate proxy lies in its textural variants and terrestrial gypsum samples from varied locations and textural types have been analyzed with laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) in this study. Petrographic, sub-microscopic, and powder X-ray diffraction characterizations confirm the presence of gypsum (hydrated calcium sulphate; CaSO₄·2H₂O), bassanite (semi-hydrated calcium sulphate; CaSO₄·½H₂O), and anhydrite (anhydrous calcium sulphate; CaSO4), along with accessory phases (quartz and jarosite). The principal component analysis of LIBS spectra from texturally varied gypsums can be differentiated from one another due to the chemical variability in their elemental concentrations. The concentration of gypsum is determined from the partial least-square regressions model. The rapid characterization of gypsum samples with LIBS is expected to work well in extraterrestrial environments. Full article