Search Results (137)

Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) face substantial thermoregulatory constraints because of their large body size, low relative surface area, sparse hair, and lack of functional sweat glands. Reliable body temperature measurement is essential for assessing thermal status and evaluating welfare in both wild and managed populations, but conventional rectal thermometry requires close physical contact, animal training, and repeated manual handling, making high-frequency, continuous, large-scale monitoring impractical. This study developed a non-invasive framework for automatically detecting the outer ear and extracting auricular surface temperature from infrared thermograms. Rectal temperature, regional surface temperatures, ambient temperature, and relative humidity were measured synchronously in eight semi-captive Asian elephants, yielding 425 matched observations. The associations between rectal temperature and the surface temperatures of three anatomical regions (head, outer ear, torso and limbs) were analyzed using repeated-measures correlation accounting for the non-independence of repeated measurements. Mean outer-ear temperature showed the strongest within-individual association with rectal temperature (r_rm = 0.395, p < 0.001), identifying the outer ear as the optimal thermal window for subsequent automated monitoring. Eight lightweight YOLO models—YOLOv5n, YOLOv5s, YOLOv8n, YOLOv8s, YOLO11n, YOLO11s, YOLO26n, and YOLO26s—were trained on 2178 annotated infrared images and evaluated on an independent 194-image test set from extra elephants. Model performance was assessed using detection metrics, inference speed, Bland–Altman agreement, Taylor diagram statistics, and a weighted multi-criteria score with Monte Carlo sensitivity analysis. YOLO11n achieved the best overall performance, with an mAP50 of 0.933 and an inference speed of 164 frames per second. The proposed framework provides an efficient method for automated auricular temperature monitoring and has potential applications in elephant welfare management and remote physiological surveillance. Full article

Land-use changes around conservation areas may compromise core habitat integrity and ecological network connectivity. However, how core habitat area, patch structure, and modeled structural connectivity respond jointly to land-use change across contrasting landscapes remains poorly understood. Using a consistent cross-regional framework integrating land-use scenario simulation and ecological network assessment, this study compared changes in core habitat source patches, key ecological sources, and corridors across three candidate national park areas in Southwest China under three development scenarios, identifying three response types associated with landscape context. Results showed that core habitat extent and structural connectivity generally remained stable or slightly improved under the ecological protection (EPS) scenario, whereas varying degrees of connectivity decline or structural degradation were projected under the business-as-usual (BAU) and urban development (UDS) scenarios. The dominant responses differed among the three study areas: the Asian Elephant area mainly showed reduced large-patch integrity; Fanjingshan showed source-patch contraction and increased spatial isolation; and Gaoligongshan maintained relatively stable habitat extent but was sensitive to changes in key ecological source patches and corridor structure. Changes in area of core habitat were not always synchronized with connectivity changes, and corridor number alone did not indicate corridor connectivity efficiency. These findings provide scenario-based spatial reference information for differentiated conservation assessment, key-source evaluation, and preliminary corridor restoration screening in candidate national park areas. Full article

Improved conservation efforts in China have contributed to the recovery and range expansion of the Asian elephant, increasing spatial overlap between humans and elephants and intensifying the pressure of human–elephant coexistence. Understanding human tolerance toward Asian elephants has therefore become an important pathway for promoting conservation and coexistence. Using survey data from 873 farm households collected in Xishuangbanna Prefecture and Pu’er City in Yunnan Province, this study measures tolerance toward Asian elephants across five dimensions: types of elephant-related damage, economic loss, population size, spatial distance, and activity frequency. Independent-sample t-tests, one-way ANOVA and ANCOVA were used to examine differences in tolerance among different groups of farm households. The results show that: (1) the overall tolerance toward Asian elephants among farm households is relatively low (mean = 2.40); (2) within types of elephant-related damage, tolerance is lowest for crop loss and cash crop loss, followed by loss of working time and risk of human injury, while tolerance is relatively higher for damage to houses and property, loss of stored food, and damage to vehicles; (3) farm households showed low levels of tolerance across the dimensions of economic loss, population size, spatial distance, and activity frequency; (4) higher tolerance is observed among male respondents, Dai farm households, those engaged in wildlife protection-related occupations, and households located in Pu’er City, and tolerance increased as cultivated land area decreased, household income increased, and agricultural dependence declined. These findings provide empirical evidence for understanding farm households’ tolerance toward Asian elephants and offer policy insights for improving tolerance, optimizing human–elephant conflict (HEC) management, and promoting the social sustainability of human–elephant coexistence. The study also contributes China-based evidence to discussions on flagship species conservation and community coexistence under the SDG 15 and CBD frameworks. Full article

In areas with frequent wildlife activity, coordinating biodiversity conservation with agricultural production is a critical issue for achieving agricultural sustainability. This study uses farm household survey data collected in 2022 from Asian elephant distribution areas in Yunnan Province, China. It systematically evaluates the effects of Human–Elephant Conflict (HEC) and the wildlife damage compensation policy on farm households’ farmland use behavior. Focusing on farmland adjustment behavior under the context of biodiversity conservation, we develop an analytical framework of “HEC–policy intervention–farm household farmland use behavior.” Using survey data from 1276 farm households, we examine the effects of HEC on farmland transfer-out and farmland abandonment. We also analyze the moderating role of the wildlife damage compensation policy. In addition, we explore the heterogeneity between areas inside and outside nature reserves. The results show that: (1) HEC significantly increase the likelihood of farmland transfer-out and farmland abandonment among farm households; (2) the wildlife damage compensation policy partially mitigates the positive effects of HEC on farmland transfer-out and farmland abandonment; and (3) the effects of HEC on farmland transfer-out and farmland abandonment are more pronounced for farm households outside nature reserves. The wildlife damage compensation policy shows a stronger inhibitory effect on farmland transfer-out inside nature reserves. In contrast, it has a stronger inhibitory effect on farmland abandonment outside nature reserves. From the perspective of farmland use, this study reveals how HEC and policy intervention influence farm households’ farmland allocation behavior. It also provides empirical evidence for improving wildlife damage compensation mechanisms. In addition, the findings help promote synergy between agricultural sustainability and biodiversity conservation. Full article

Landscape features often shape maternal genetic structure by influencing connectivity. In this study, habitat fragmentation, a major threat to the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), was assessed through an integrated approach involving mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), habitat-suitability modeling, and circuit-based landscape-resistance analyses. Two regions from Thailand, Phu Khieo (PK) and Khao Ang Rue Nai (ARN) Wildlife Sanctuaries, were investigated. Fourteen mtDNA haplotypes were identified among 66 samples, with relatively high diversity and population expansion in PK. Maternal genetic differentiation was identified between the PK and ARN groups. Environmental variables, such as urbanization and road proximity in ARN and topographic wetness and stream distance in PK, were associated with genetic distances, suggesting these features restricted female-mediated connectivity. Fine-scale spatial analysis revealed significant local genetic structure only in PK, whereas no autocorrelation was detected in ARN, suggesting potential impacts of fragmentation. Genetic landscape surfaces illustrated spatial heterogeneity, pinpointing isolation zones near high anthropogenic disturbance. These findings demonstrate that broad-scale models may overlook fine-scale patterns of maternal genetic isolation. Therefore, conservation strategies should incorporate spatially explicit analyses to identify and restore crucial movement corridors, particularly in fragmented regions like ARN, for promoting connectivity and population viability. Full article

Protected national parks continue to face increased pressure from the expansion of human–wildlife interface zones, where habitat encroachment promotes human–wildlife contact and zoonotic disease transmission. Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) are a significant health issue in wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus), affecting their fitness, survival, and potential for cross-species transmission. This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of GIPs among wild elephants at Khao Sip Ha Chan National Park in eastern Thailand. Direct smear, formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation, flotation, and McMaster egg per gram (EPG) counting were used to examine 135 fecal samples from three populations. The findings showed that nematodes (Strongyle-type and Strongyloides spp.) and trematodes (Paramphistomum spp. and Fascioloides jacksoni) were identified. All samples were positive for at least one parasite species, and 84.4% were affected by mixed infections. The prevalence of Strongyle-type and Strongyloides spp. varied significantly among the studied populations, but Paramphistomum spp. had a moderate prevalence, and Fascioloides jacksoni had a low prevalence. The high parasite burden could be explained by environmental factors, host density, and movement patterns influencing parasite transmission, and these factors should be further investigated. These findings provide crucial baseline data and underscore the need for integrated parasite surveillance, alongside long-term conservation and future research. Full article

Understanding how species share resources (niche dynamics) and associate with each other is crucial for maintaining stable ecological communities. Using infrared camera traps, we constructed spatial association networks for an isolated Asian elephant population. The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), a keystone species in tropical forests, faces significant threats from habitat fragmentation and human disturbances, particularly in the isolated population of Nangunhe National Nature Reserve, Yunnan, China. Using infrared camera trapping, niche analysis, and interspecific association models, we examined the ecological role of Asian elephants and their sympatric species networks in fragmented habitats. We identified 44 species, including 11 species with higher relative abundance showing significant ecological correlations with elephants. Asian elephants exhibited the broadest spatial distribution, consistent with their role as ecological engineers due to high environmental tolerance and diverse resource utilization. Sympatric herbivores exhibited moderate spatial co-occurrence. Wild boars (Sus scrofa), red-bellied squirrels (Callosciurus erythraeus), northern pig-tailed macaques (Macaca leonina), and red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) demonstrated significant spatial associations with elephants. Lambda coefficient analysis revealed asymmetric associations reflecting spatial reliance of red-bellied squirrels and wild boars on elephant activity zones. Temporally, Asian elephants exhibited a stable bimodal activity pattern at dawn and dusk. Despite varying degrees of diel overlap with sympatric species, no significant temporal avoidance was detected, suggesting fine-scale coexistence mechanisms beyond the temporal dimension. We argue that conservation strategies are in urgent need of a transformation from single-species protection to the preservation of ecological interaction networks. This study clarifies the dominant position of Asian elephants in the community by mapping the spatial association networks between Asian elephants and sympatric species, and its findings hold substantial guiding significance for the recovery and protection of isolated Asian elephant populations. Full article

The artistic exchange during Buddhism’s early transmission represents a vital field within Silk Road art studies. When Buddhist art first entered China during the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220), many artistic elements originating from Indian and Central Asian traditions manifested via a highly fragmentary mode of dissemination. As a result, prior scholarship on Buddhist art in the Han Dynasty has predominantly focused on case studies of individual motifs such as Buddha images, lotus patterns, lions, and elephants. These studies form an essential foundation for the present research. This paper observes that Buddha images from the Han period were not always disseminated as isolated icons but were frequently closely associated with octagonal columns and arches/lintels. Tracing their origins reveals a connection to the “column–arch–Buddha” narrative motif found in the architectural art of Indian and Central Asian Buddhism. This motif extended eastward through the Western Regions (Xiyu 西域, present-day Xinjiang 新疆) and ultimately reached the core territories of the Han Empire, undergoing various transformations—including deconstruction, reassembly, and translation—in the process. Understanding these combinatory modes and their underlying intent is crucial for comprehending the essential nature of the early interaction and fusion between Buddhist art and Han Chinese civilization. Full article

Understanding the diversity patterns within a region is helpful for the implementation of conservation management. Xishuangbanna, located in southwestern China, is notable for its diverse plant species and belongs to a tropical–subtropical transition area. This study investigated the biodiversity patterns for four types of primary forests in Xishuangbanna, namely tropical rainforests, tropical monsoon forests, tropical low-montane evergreen broadleaf forests, and tropical seasonal moist forests. The difference in the forests alongside a set of environments was assessed using non-metric dimensional scaling and partial least-squares discriminant analysis. And, we calculated and compared four diversity metrics for each forest, including species richness, phylogenetic diversity, standardized phylogenetic diversity, and standardized mean phylogenetic distance, and calculated their correlation with 22 environments using multiple stepwise regressions. The results showed that tropical rainforests had the highest biodiversity on account of species richness (with an average of about 40 species) and phylogenetic diversity (with an average of about 3000). Although the values of standardized mean phylogenetic distance were lower than zero for all forests, the tropical seasonal moist forests ranked first. Not only species composition and environments’ differences, especially the temperature seasonality, minimum temperature of the coldest month, latitude, and precipitation of the driest quarter, primarily influenced the forest groupings. The variance in species richness (R² = 0.57) and phylogenetic diversity (R² = 0.54) was best explained by a model integrating forest type, soil, climate, and geographic factors. In contrast, the variance in standardized phylogenetic diversity (R² = 0.48) and standardized mean phylogenetic distance (R² = 0.39) was primarily influenced by soil and climate factors. We suggest that tropical rainforests and tropical seasonal moist forests should be conservation priorities in conservation management. This study provides insights into community assembly mechanisms and the enhancement of biodiversity conservation management in transitional areas. Full article

Protected area coverage is set to expand in response to climate change and the biodiversity crisis, but we lack assessments of wildfire incidence in protected areas. Here, we quantify biogeographical variation in global patterns of burned area in protected areas. During the twenty-first century, wildfires have burned 2 billion hectares of protected areas—an area the size of Russia and India combined—and, while protected areas only cover 19.2% of semi-natural ecosystems, they concentrate 28.5% of the area burned annually. Wildfire in protected areas increased significantly between 2001 and 2024 (+0.46% yr⁻¹), even after taking into account increases in protected area (+0.27% yr⁻¹), pointing to a disproportional impact of fire on protected areas under increasingly severe fire weather. This pattern showed marked variation across biomes, with the largest disproportionate increases occurring in fire-prone biomes (e.g., Mediterranean and dry tropical forests, tropical grasslands, and xeric shrublands). There were important exceptions to this general trend, and protected area fire was lower than expected in biomes where fire activity is naturally limited by moisture (e.g., tropical rainforests or montane grasslands). Wildfires are important for the health of many ecosystems, and such values of burned area will not always mean a negative outcome. Amidst concerted efforts to expand protected area coverage, such as the Global Biodiversity Framework, our results highlight the need for new management strategies that address the globally increasing impacts of burned area across protected areas under unabated climate change. Full article

Captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) frequently present to hospitals with complex, multisystemic diseases, yet veterinarians lack objective tools to predict and classify clinical outcomes. Decision-making often relies on experience or anecdote, and few studies have applied data-driven approaches in wildlife medicine. This study developed a machine learning–based classification model using routinely collected clinical data. A total of 467 medical records from hospitalized elephants at Thailand’s National Elephant Institute (2019–2024) were retrospectively analyzed. Four variables (age, sex, disease group, and length of stay [LOS]) were used to train four classification algorithms: Random Forest, eXtreme Gradient Boosting, Naïve Bayes, and multinomial logistic regression. The Random Forest model achieved the highest classification performance (accuracy = 86.3%; log-loss = 0.374), with disease group, LOS, and age as key predictors. Survival analysis revealed distinct hospitalization trajectories across disease groups: acute conditions like elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus-hemorrhagic disease and toxicosis showed rapid early declines, whereas dental and renal cases followed more prolonged courses. Our findings demonstrate the preliminary feasibility of outcome classification in elephant care and highlight the potential of clinical data science to improve in-hospital prognostication, monitoring, and treatment planning in zoological and wildlife medicine. Full article

Background: Sexual dimorphism in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is evident in external features, but skeletal differences remain underexplored. This study aimed to examine the skull, scapula, and pelvis using traditional morphometric methods to assess sex-related variation. Methods: Eleven skeletal specimens were analyzed, including nine skulls, eleven pelves, and eighteen scapulae. Linear measurements were obtained using measuring tape and calipers. Statistical analyses included Mann–Whitney U tests, Pearson’s correlation, and logistic regression for sex prediction. Results: No significant differences were found in skull measurements between sexes. However, the pelvis and scapula exhibited notable variation. Significant pelvic parameters included pelvic girdle length (p = 0.024), symphysis length (p = 0.012), and pubis shaft perimeter (p = 0.048). Scapular differences were observed in diagonal breadth, mediolateral width, and spine length. Logistic regression using pelvic measurements yielded 100% accuracy for female classification and 66.67% for males, with an overall prediction accuracy of 90.91%. Conclusions: The pelvis demonstrated the highest reliability for sex determination. These findings enhance the anatomical understanding of Asian elephants and support applications in conservation, forensic science, and population studies. Future research with larger sample sizes and advanced imaging may improve the precision of morphometric sex prediction models. Full article

Cobboldia elephantis (Oestridae: Gasterophilinae) is an obligate parasite of the alimentary tract of the Asian elephant, causing gastric myiasis. Current knowledge of its first instar larval morphology has been limited to observations under light microscopy, significantly constraining our understanding of morphological evolution within the genus Cobboldia and the broader subfamily Gasterophilinae. In this study, we provided ultrastructural and three-dimensional characterizations of C. elephantis using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) based on newly hatched first instar larvae. Features of the first instar larva of C. elephantis, which are either unique or shared with C. loxodontis Brauer, 1896, include (i) three pairs of mouthhooks, (ii) posterior spiracles bearing peristigmatic tufts, (iii) anal division with two spine-clusters and a row of elongated spines, and (iv) a planed, button-like sensilla and a sensillum placodeum. We also compared the first instar larval morphology of C. elephantis with that of Cobboldia loxodontis, Gyrostigma rhinocerontis (Owen, 1830), Gasterophilus pecorum (Fabricius, 1794), Portschinskia magnifica Pleske, 1926, and Oestrus ovis Linnaeus, 1758. Species of Gasterophilinae share several unique features of the first instar larva, including (i) an anal division composed of three subdivisions, (ii) spiracular slits on the posterior spiracles, and (iii) conserved positioning of thoracic sensilla. These findings fill a key gap in our knowledge of C. elephantis larval morphology and suggest that these distinctive structures play a role in adaptation to its parasitic lifestyle. Full article

This case report details the successful rehabilitation of a 31-year-old male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) presenting with an abnormal left forelimb gait following chronic traumatic injury. The elephant exhibited a distinctive circumduction gait with a semicircular arc movement, characterized by limited flexion at the elbow and carpus, along with compensatory proximal shrugging during the swing phase. Diagnostic evaluations revealed joint space narrowing and ligament fibrosis, while biomechanical gait analysis using inertial measurement units highlighted significant asymmetries between affected and unaffected limbs. An interprofessional team developed a comprehensive rehabilitation protocol that integrated peripheral magnetic stimulation, task-specific therapeutic walking with adjustable obstacles, and progressive strengthening exercises. At the eight-week follow-up, improvements were observed in cross-correlation coefficients of limb movement and imaging assessments, indicating enhanced symmetry and structural improvements with reduced fibrosis. However, persistent discrepancies in elbow functions suggest that further targeted rehabilitation may be warranted. This report underscores the potential of a coordinated interprofessional approach to restore functional gait patterns in elephants and offers valuable insights for future rehabilitative strategies in managing complex musculoskeletal injuries in large mammals. Full article

The endangered Asian elephant, Thailand’s national symbol, is increasingly affected by human–elephant conflict (HEC), now a critical conservation and socio-economic concern. This study examined 341 HEC occurrences in 34 out of 77 Thai provinces between 2014 and 2023, based on data from official and private sources. These events resulted in both human and elephant casualties and property damage. Occurrences peaked in 2018 and 2023, with significant associations found between conflict rates, regions, and periods. The Eastern region and the July-to-October period (the rainy season) emerged as key high-risk areas, likely related to additional factors such as high elephant densities and abundant crop production. Most HECs occurred in agricultural land, where elephants searched for food. The findings suggest that the July-to-October period requires heightened surveillance and additional preventive actions. The Eastern region remains a priority for intervention due to its ongoing vulnerability and the movement of elephants across provincial boundaries. Furthermore, the rise of the Northeastern region as a new hotspot underlines the need for proactive measures to prevent escalation. Full article