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16 pages, 304 KB

Open AccessArticle

Healthcare Systems and Inequality in the European Union: A Comparative Analysis

by Adrián Ferreiro-Pérez, Adrián Ríos-Blanco, Antía Martínez-Lourido and Francisco-Jesús Ferreiro-Seoane

Systems 2026, 14(6), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems14060602 - 23 May 2026

Viewed by 511

Abstract

The third United Nations Sustainable Development Goal promotes health and well-being. Despite the existence of academic literature examining the relationship between health and income inequality, evidence on the role of healthcare systems in this inequality remains limited. This article aims to analyse the [...] Read more.

The third United Nations Sustainable Development Goal promotes health and well-being. Despite the existence of academic literature examining the relationship between health and income inequality, evidence on the role of healthcare systems in this inequality remains limited. This article aims to analyse the extent to which healthcare systems are associated with differences in economic inequality. To this end, a balanced panel of 27 European Union countries for the period 2005–2022 is used, applying t-tests for differences in means and linear regression models using S80/S20, Gini and Palma inequality measures. The main results show that countries with a Social Health Insurance System (SHIS) exhibit, on average, lower levels of income inequality, despite not being the highest spenders on healthcare. On the other hand, healthcare expenditure has a negative and statistically significant relationship with inequality, whereas in countries with a Mixed Healthcare System (MHS), this association is not statistically significant. A disaggregated analysis of public and private spending indicates that public expenditure is particularly relevant in SHIS countries being negatively associated with income inequality, whereas this relationship differs in countries with a National Health System (NHS). Thus, it is concluded that healthcare systems display significant differences in the relationship under study. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

21 pages, 1845 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Evolutionary Game Model for Digital Urban–Rural Sharing of Social Public Resources Based on System Dynamics

by Zongjun Wang and Wenyi Luo

Systems 2026, 14(4), 411; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems14040411 - 8 Apr 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 531

Abstract

Digital urban–rural sharing of social public resources (SPRs) is important for improving resource allocation efficiency and narrowing urban–rural disparities. This study applies a tripartite evolutionary game framework to analyze the strategic interactions among the government sector, the sharing supply side, and the sharing [...] Read more.

Digital urban–rural sharing of social public resources (SPRs) is important for improving resource allocation efficiency and narrowing urban–rural disparities. This study applies a tripartite evolutionary game framework to analyze the strategic interactions among the government sector, the sharing supply side, and the sharing demand side in the digital urban–rural SPR sharing process. A system dynamics (SD) model is further constructed to simulate the dynamic evolution of the system under different initial conditions and parameter settings. The results show that the system generally evolves along a path of government initiation, demand-side response, and supply-side follow-up. Higher collaborative benefits, lower resource transfer costs, stronger government credibility, and appropriately designed subsidies promote active sharing and accelerate convergence toward a high-sharing stable outcome. In contrast, high transfer costs, weak collaborative incentives, and insufficient regulatory credibility inhibit sharing behavior or delay convergence. In addition, different initial cooperation levels mainly affect the convergence speed and fluctuation pattern of the evolutionary process. This study extends the application of the tripartite evolutionary game framework to the digital urban–rural SPR sharing context and combines it with SD simulation to reveal the system’s dynamic evolution mechanism. The findings provide practical implications for promoting digital urban–rural SPR sharing through moderate subsidies, reduced transfer costs, enhanced regulatory credibility, and strengthened collaborative mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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34 pages, 701 KB

Open AccessArticle

Developing a Composite Sustainable Smart City Performance Assessment Index: A Novel Indexing Model and Cross-Country Application

by Mert Unal and Mehtap Dursun

Systems 2026, 14(3), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems14030330 - 23 Mar 2026

Viewed by 1333

Abstract

Cities are increasingly expected to address digital transformation and sustainability challenges at the same time. However, existing urban indices generally approach smart city and sustainable city perspectives separately, which limits their ability to capture the integrated nature of contemporary urban development. In addition, [...] Read more.

Cities are increasingly expected to address digital transformation and sustainability challenges at the same time. However, existing urban indices generally approach smart city and sustainable city perspectives separately, which limits their ability to capture the integrated nature of contemporary urban development. In addition, many index-based studies rely on similar methodological choices. This study develops a composite Sustainable Smart City (SSC) index supported by a systematic scoring framework that brings smartness and sustainability together. The proposed framework follows a step-by-step procedure covering data preparation, normalization, weighting, aggregation, and final scoring. To address information overlap among indicators, a Redundancy-Penalized Entropy Weighting (RPEW) approach is applied. Then, overall SSC scores are calculated using a soft non-compensatory aggregation to emphasize balanced performance across dimensions. The framework is empirically illustrated through a cross-country case study including 38 OECD (Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development) countries. A machine-learning-based polynomial forecasting approach is used for a limited number of indicators to deal with data gaps allowing the assessment to reflect more up-to-date conditions. The results highlight clear differences in SSC performance and show that strong outcomes in a single dimension are not sufficient to achieve high overall SSC scores. Instead, balanced progress across economic, digital, environmental, governance, mobility, and social dimensions plays an important role. In addition, the proposed framework provides a practical basis for comparative analysis, benchmarking, and policy-oriented evaluation of smart and sustainable urban development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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30 pages, 1153 KB

Open AccessArticle

Some Additional Principles of Living Systems Functioning and Their Application for Expanding the Theory of a Possible Typology of National Food Systems Strategies

by Pavel Brazhnikov

Systems 2026, 14(3), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems14030230 - 25 Feb 2026

Viewed by 930

Abstract

This article describes the basic principles of the functioning of living systems, which distinguish them from other systems. The concept of dividing living systems’ resources into matter and energy has been expanded by describing their contribution to systems’ entropy. Within social systems, human [...] Read more.

This article describes the basic principles of the functioning of living systems, which distinguish them from other systems. The concept of dividing living systems’ resources into matter and energy has been expanded by describing their contribution to systems’ entropy. Within social systems, human individuals serve as the functional equivalent of energy in ordinary living systems, acting as the driving and redistributive force with respect to matter. Furthermore, additional characteristics of system resources that impact the strategies of living systems regarding their resources have been introduced. Additionally, the maximum rate of development of living systems under ideal conditions has been demonstrated. Based on the above, this article presents the most natural sequence of changes of living systems in relation to their sources of matter and energy. Moreover, such a sequence of strategy changes is also considered for national food systems in which infrastructure elements and workers represent matter and energy. This article can provide a valuable initial insight into the degree of correspondence between the general structural organization of state food systems and the operational conditions under which they function. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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25 pages, 2513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Restructuring of the Global Chip Trade Network: Characteristic Evolution and Driving Factors

by Lei Fu and Xiangyi Ding

Systems 2026, 14(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems14020149 - 30 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1057

Abstract

As the “brain” of the information industry and modern manufacturing, chips have emerged as a focal point in global competition over critical technologies. Based on global chip trade data from 2010 to 2023, this study employs social network analysis to investigate the structural [...] Read more.

As the “brain” of the information industry and modern manufacturing, chips have emerged as a focal point in global competition over critical technologies. Based on global chip trade data from 2010 to 2023, this study employs social network analysis to investigate the structural evolution of the chip trade network and applies the quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) to examine the driving mechanisms of network reconstruction. The findings are as follows: First, the global chip trade network exhibits a loosely connected core-periphery structure, characterized by clustering and polarization, with a pronounced short-term deglobalization trend. Second, China, the United States, Germany, France, South Korea, and Singapore have long dominated central positions in competitive dynamics, while developing economies such as Mexico, Malaysia, and the Philippines have significantly risen in prominence in recent years. Third, the network takes on a core–subcore–periphery configuration with clearly delineated trade communities, reflecting a community-based, multi-centric, and hierarchical pattern. Fourth, political relations serve as a key driver of network restructuring, with their promotional effect on chip trade being negatively moderated by technological distance yet positively moderated by economic-complexity distance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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27 pages, 4084 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Integrated Optimization for Resilient Wildfire Evacuation System Design: A Case Study of a Rural County in Korea

by Kyubin Kwon, Yejin Kim and Jinil Han

Systems 2025, 13(12), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13121125 - 16 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1288

Abstract

Wildfires increasingly threaten the operation and stability of regional socio-economic systems, where infrastructure, population, and environmental conditions are tightly interconnected. To enhance operational efficiency and strengthen community resilience, this study develops an integrated optimization framework for wildfire evacuation system design based on mixed-integer [...] Read more.

Wildfires increasingly threaten the operation and stability of regional socio-economic systems, where infrastructure, population, and environmental conditions are tightly interconnected. To enhance operational efficiency and strengthen community resilience, this study develops an integrated optimization framework for wildfire evacuation system design based on mixed-integer programming. The model simultaneously determines the locations of primary and secondary shelters and establishes both main and backup evacuation linkages, forming a dual-stage structure that ensures continuous accessibility even under disrupted conditions such as road blockages or fire spread. Wildfire risk indices derived from topographic and environmental data are incorporated to support risk-aware and balanced shelter allocation. A case study of Uiryeong County, South Korea, demonstrates that the proposed framework effectively improves evacuation efficiency and system reliability, producing spatially coherent and adaptive evacuation plans under diverse disruption scenarios. The findings highlight how operation optimization can enhance socio-economic system resilience and sustainability when facing large-scale environmental disruptions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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33 pages, 2745 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Combined Hybrid Group Multi-Criteria Decision-Making Model for the Selection of Power Generation Technologies

by Jose M. Rivero-Iglesias, Javier Puente, Isabel Fernandez and Omar León

Systems 2025, 13(9), 742; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13090742 - 26 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1653

Abstract

This study assessed ten alternatives, comprising nine power generation technologies and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), using a combined hybrid approach based on group Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methods. Specifically, AHP was employed for determining criteria weights, while fuzzy VIKOR was utilised for ranking [...] Read more.

This study assessed ten alternatives, comprising nine power generation technologies and Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS), using a combined hybrid approach based on group Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) methods. Specifically, AHP was employed for determining criteria weights, while fuzzy VIKOR was utilised for ranking the alternatives. Six electricity sector experts evaluated each technology, organised within a hierarchical decision model that included four main criteria: economic, environmental, technical, and social, along with 13 subcriteria. To mitigate subjectivity in criteria weights stemming from diverse expert backgrounds, a consensus technique was implemented post-AHP. Fuzzy VIKOR was employed to address uncertainty in expert ratings. The findings revealed a significant preference towards renewable technologies, with Photovoltaic (PV) and Wind at the forefront, whereas Coal occupied the lowest position. A validation process was conducted using BWM for criteria weights and fuzzy TOPSIS for ranking alternatives. This hybrid soft computing method’s key contributions include its modular design, allowing for the sequential determination of criteria weights, followed by the calculation of alternative rankings, fostering interactive and collaborative evaluations of various energy mixes by expert groups. Additionally, the study evaluated three emerging energy technologies: BESS, Small Modular Nuclear Reactors (SMRs), and Hydrogen, highlighting their potential in the evolving energy landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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26 pages, 1263 KB

Open AccessArticle

Identifying Key Digital Enablers for Urban Carbon Reduction: A Strategy-Focused Study of AI, Big Data, and Blockchain Technologies

by Rongyu Pei, Meiqi Chen and Ziyang Liu

Systems 2025, 13(8), 646; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13080646 - 1 Aug 2025

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1774

Abstract

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and blockchain technologies within the digital economy presents transformative opportunities for promoting low-carbon urban development. However, a systematic understanding of how these digital innovations influence urban carbon mitigation remains limited. This study addresses this [...] Read more.

The integration of artificial intelligence (AI), big data analytics, and blockchain technologies within the digital economy presents transformative opportunities for promoting low-carbon urban development. However, a systematic understanding of how these digital innovations influence urban carbon mitigation remains limited. This study addresses this gap by proposing two research questions (RQs): (1) What are the key success factors for artificial intelligence, big data, and blockchain in urban carbon emission reduction? (2) How do these technologies interact and support the transition to low-carbon cities? To answer these questions, the study employs a hybrid methodological framework combining the decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL) and interpretive structural modeling (ISM) techniques. The data were collected through structured expert questionnaires, enabling the identification and hierarchical analysis of twelve critical success factors (CSFs). Grounded in sustainability transitions theory and institutional theory, the CSFs are categorized into three dimensions: (1) digital infrastructure and technological applications; (2) digital transformation of industry and economy; (3) sustainable urban governance. The results reveal that e-commerce and sustainable logistics, the adoption of the circular economy, and cross-sector collaboration are the most influential drivers of digital-enabled decarbonization, while foundational elements such as smart energy systems and digital infrastructure act as key enablers. The DEMATEL-ISM approach facilitates a system-level understanding of the causal relationships and strategic priorities among the CSFs, offering actionable insights for urban planners, policymakers, and stakeholders committed to sustainable digital transformation and carbon neutrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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30 pages, 1387 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Digital Performance of Public Services in the EU: E-Governance and Technology Integration

by Oana Ramona Lobonț, Cristina Criste, Alexandra Ioana Vintilă, Andreea Florentina Crăciun and Nicoleta Claudia Moldovan

Systems 2025, 13(6), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13060425 - 2 Jun 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4592

Abstract

This research aims to rank the regions of the European Union based on their digital performance in public services, offering a new perspective on the digitalization process and its effects on the European public system. Therefore, the study examines the evolution of intensity [...] Read more.

This research aims to rank the regions of the European Union based on their digital performance in public services, offering a new perspective on the digitalization process and its effects on the European public system. Therefore, the study examines the evolution of intensity and the impact of digitalization through the e-government framework, specifically from the perspective of the 27 member states of the European Union. Thus, the research analyzes the interplay between digital intensity, institutional quality, and adoptingadopting e-government services to understand the challenges and disparities across different regions. To evaluate the digital performance of the European Union regions, the analysis employs the following methods: (i) Principal Component Analysis to construct a composite Institutional Quality Index based on governance indicators, (ii) Gaussian graphical models to assess the relationships between digital intensity, institutional quality, and e-government highlighting the interconnections between variables, (iii) Data Envelopment Analysis to measure the relative efficiency of public service delivery, and (iv) cluster dendrograms to identify the clusters of countries with similar performance levels and challenges. The findings reveal disparities among nations and the contemporary challenges facing EU member states in implementing and adopting e-government initiatives. While Denmark and Finland often excel in digital service efficiency, countries like Bulgaria, Greece, and Romania may lag due to citizens’ limited digital infrastructure and digital literacy. However, it is to note that the quality of regulations, as reflected in the Institutional Quality Index, plays a significant role in successfully integrating digitalization. The study underscores the crucial role of digital adoption in enhancing the public sector’s performance, particularly when coupled with strong institutional frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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21 pages, 2838 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Performance of Sustainable Urbanization and Its Impacts on Carbon Emissions: A Case Study of Nine Pearl River Delta Cities

by Rourou Huang, Shijian Hong, Hongyu Chen and Zhixin Chen

Systems 2025, 13(5), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13050391 - 19 May 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1337

Abstract

China is presently placing significant emphasis on sustainable urbanization as a means to facilitate the shift towards high-quality economic development. The concept of sustainable urbanization has gained added intricacy and depth within the framework of ‘carbon peak and carbon neutrality’. A primary concern [...] Read more.

China is presently placing significant emphasis on sustainable urbanization as a means to facilitate the shift towards high-quality economic development. The concept of sustainable urbanization has gained added intricacy and depth within the framework of ‘carbon peak and carbon neutrality’. A primary concern among practitioners is that while carbon emissions adhere to specific standards, the term sustainable urbanization remains vaguely defined, encompassing multifaceted objectives. The absence of a well-defined evaluative standard for sustainable urbanization creates challenges in driving comprehensive progress. Additionally, owing to the spatially heterogeneous nature of urbanization, its influence on carbon emissions can vary across different cities. This study delves into the shared factors influencing the performance of sustainable urbanization, introducing a Principal Component Analysis (PCA)-based evaluation system to gauge sustainable urbanization performance. Furthermore, we employ spatial regression analyses to explore the spatial differences in the impact of these factors on carbon emissions. Our investigation centers on data from nine cities in the Pearl River Delta, allowing for the ranking of these cities based on their sustainability performance. The outcomes reveal that the key factors influencing carbon emissions differ among cities due to variations in sustainable urbanization characteristics. Notably, our research integrates sustainable urbanization with the parameters of a low-carbon economy. In the realm of policymaking, we offer a quantifiable approach for assessing sustainable urbanization. Furthermore, we assert that cities at distinct stages of sustainable urbanization should prioritize different factors to attain carbon neutrality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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Review

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23 pages, 3061 KB

Open AccessReview

Global Research Trends in Data Envelopment Analysis for Evaluating Sustainability of Complex Socioeconomic Systems: A Systematic Bibliometric Perspective

by Katerina Fotova Čiković, Antonija Mandić and Veljko Dmitrović

Systems 2025, 13(10), 903; https://doi.org/10.3390/systems13100903 - 14 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2197

Abstract

This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of research applying data envelopment analysis (DEA) to the evaluation of sustainability and performance in complex socioeconomic systems between 2010 and mid-2025. DEA has become an increasingly valuable tool for measuring efficiency, benchmarking practices, and supporting [...] Read more.

This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of research applying data envelopment analysis (DEA) to the evaluation of sustainability and performance in complex socioeconomic systems between 2010 and mid-2025. DEA has become an increasingly valuable tool for measuring efficiency, benchmarking practices, and supporting decision-making in contexts where sustainability challenges intersect with economic, environmental, and governance dimensions. To capture global research dynamics, we extracted and merged bibliographic data from Web of Science and Scopus, analyzing publication trends, thematic clusters, co-authorship networks, citation structures, and keyword co-occurrences using bibliometric tools such as VOSviewer and Bibliometrix. Our findings reveal a consistent growth trajectory of the field, with research outputs peaking in 2020 and subsequently diversifying across multiple thematic areas. Conceptual mapping highlights two dominant domains: (i) policy, governance, and planning and (ii) environmental, ecological, and management applications, both linked through the overarching theme of sustainable development. The analysis further underscores the geographic diversity of contributions, the concentration of knowledge in key publication outlets, and the increasing connectivity of international collaboration networks. By identifying thematic gaps and underexplored intersections, this study emphasizes the need for more interdisciplinary approaches that integrate bibliometric insights with practical sustainability outcomes. The results provide a structured overview of the field’s evolution, offering researchers and policymakers a valuable reference point for advancing DEA applications in sustainability research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Operation Optimization and Performance Assessment of Complex Social-Economic Systems)

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