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The Charisma in the Middle Ages

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A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2023) | Viewed by 26586

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Prof. Dr. Jaume Aurell

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Guest Editor

Department of History, University of Navarra, 31009 Pamplona, Spain
Interests: medieval history; historiography; autobiography
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Montserrat Herrero

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Institute for Culture and Society (ICS), University of Navarra, 31009 Pamplona, Spain
Interests: political philosophy; political theology; theory of history

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the first century, St. Paul coined the notion of Christian charisma: a special gift from God which enables some believers to perform some prodigious actions such as prophecy, preaching, pardon, and miracles, for the good of the community. The concept was assumed by thirteenth-century scholastic theologians, who preserved Paul’s meaning, but connected it to the related notion of grace. This concept—and its use in historical, social, political and economic analysis—was redefined by Max Weber in the early twentieth century as captivating attractiveness or charm that enables one to engage in political, economic, and religious leadership. Appropriated and secularized by Weberian and post-Weberian sociology, charisma entered the core of the contemporary social sciences, generating intense debate that lasts to this day—but at the cost of misrepresenting its original meaning.

This Special Issue of Religions proposes analysis of the concept of charisma in the Middle Ages, assuming the original use by Paul in the first century and freeing the concept from its anachronistic post-Weberian definitions. It aims to examine the concept, theory, practice, and representations of charisma in the Middle Ages, including its institutional developments, its religious and political implications, its forms of ritualization, its doctrinal presumptions, its iconographic representations, its projection to the objects and its paradoxical relationship with authority and law. It also hopes to provide a space for interdisciplinary dialogue between history, theology, canon law, art history, political philosophy, and symbolic anthropology, prioritizing examination of the transferences between the spiritual and the temporal, the sacred and the profane, the political and the religious.

Prof. Dr. Jaume Aurell
Prof. Dr. Montserrat Herrero
Guest Editors

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Keywords

charisma
Middle Ages
mendicants
prophecy
miracle
preaching
relics
iconography
relics
sacred objects

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 384 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Charisma in the Middle Ages: Theories, Practices, and Representations

by Jaume Aurell, Martin Aurell and Montserrat Herrero

Religions 2024, 15(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15020151 - 25 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1394

Abstract

Charisma—a special gift from God that enables some believers to perform prodigious feats such as prophecy, preaching, pardon, and miracles, for the good of the community—was originally conceptualized by St [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

16 pages, 342 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Charisma and the Transformation of Western Culture 12th to 13th Centuries

by C. Stephen Jaeger

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121516 - 8 Dec 2023

Viewed by 1303

Abstract

The academic discussion of charisma takes two major voices as the point of departure: Max Weber and St. Paul. In both areas, sociology and religion, charisma is seen as a quality of persons. My argument is that entire cultures can be suffused by this force, and that social life, education, and modes of expression can be bearers and transmitters of charismatic force. I approach the argument conceptually, drawing on a remarkable passage in Goethe’s autobiography Dichtung und Wahrheit. What Goethe calls “the demonic” is charisma conceived as a force that can penetrate, unpredictably, either natural phenomena or persons. To these I add institution, cultures, and structures of government. The charisma of larger structures, like personal charisma, has a life-cycle, charisma in its cultural structuring being as unstable as in its personal embodiment. The idea opens cultural transformations to analysis. Clifford Geertz has provided a model. The sea-changes that transformed western European culture from the twelfth to the thirteenth century show us the end of a life-cycle of charismatic culture, and the transition to intellectual or textual culture. Charisma moved out of the realm of the lived and expressed social forms and into art and artifice, rationalizing philosophy, theology, liturgy and other forms of Christian discourse (sermons). Three voices from the later thirteenth century observe this development closely—the loss of charisma as a political–social–cultural force—and lament the loss. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

27 pages, 462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leadership on Crusade: Military Excellence, Physical Action and Gender in the Twelfth-Century Chronicles of the First Crusade and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem

by Sini Kangas

Religions 2023, 14(10), 1251; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14101251 - 1 Oct 2023

Viewed by 3129

Abstract

It is hardly surprising that in the chronicles of the First Crusade (1096–1099) and in the Chronicon of William of Tyre, accounts propagating Christian warfare, impressiveness, authority and command stem from military actions blessed by God. In the depictions, the position of being a leader is constructed and maintained by a public display of martial ability, by deeds rather than by words. The sources certainly describe aristocratic warriors influencing their peers or larger mixed audiences by speech, but in these cases too, to be successful, the grasp on command normally requires that physical effort follows the communications. The narratives equate physical action with the motives, values and beliefs of the first crusaders. The initiative aimed at achieving leadership is often described approvingly, but the sources also criticize the leaders for manipulative behaviour and unwillingness to cooperate with each other. The judgement of the sources depends on authorial agenda and dynastic rivalries: the leaders of the First Crusade, here especially Bohemond of Taranto (c. 1054–1111), Tancred of Hauteville (c. 1078–1112) and the successors of Godfrey of Bouillon (c. 1060–1100), understood the relation between written history and the claim on power and actively contributed to the production of the heroic image of the first crusaders, that is, the highlighting of their own alleged excellence as leaders. For these three leaders, a cultural legacy, whether initiated during their lifetime or posthumously, was crucial to creating a lasting image of effective leadership. The case of Peter the Hermit, a preacher from Amiens with a supposedly low social background, is different. The fact that chroniclers and composers of chansons included a figure without military expertise and verifiable support from kin and allies among the leaders of the First Crusade, albeit in a controversial manner, bears evidence in itself of his recognition by medieval audiences. Leadership is a gendered talent in the twelfth-century chronicles. The close relation between command and military action on the one hand, and the categorical exclusion of women from the field of battle on the other, discouraged depictions of female leadership in the crusading context. As a result, women were excluded from the leadership of the First Crusade, and references to female authority did not appear in the sources until several decades later in an altered context, with Queen Melisende of Jerusalem (c. 1105–1161) being the clearest example. In her case, too, gender formed a barrier to action and leadership. William of Tyre’s description of her reign is ambivalent, while her sister Alice’s (c. 1110—after 1151) claim to the regency of Antioch is portrayed negatively. This article compares the models and qualities of the leaders of the First Crusade in medieval sources. The first section considers modern definitions of imposing (charismatic) authority and ties the discussion to the overarching theme of exploring medieval crusader leadership. The second part examines the examples of the leaders of Antioch and Jerusalem and their cultural legacy in the chronicles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

10 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Charisma of Ascetic Saints in the Hagiography of the 12th Century

by Edina Bozoky

Religions 2023, 14(8), 1063; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14081063 - 19 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1261

Abstract

In the 11th–12th centuries, extreme ascetic practices reappeared in Western Europe, in particular, the wearing of hauberks and heavy iron chains, associated with penitence and eremitism. This article discusses the charisma of three ascetic saints of the 12th century: Bernard the Penitent (d. 1182), Wulfric of Haselbury (d. 1154/55), and Godric of Finchale (d. 1170). Their hagiographies were written shortly after their death. The authors emphasize that they were revered as holy men already in their lifetime. Their charismatic power was revealed by miracles of healing and prophecy, sometimes in visions. The manifestations of their charisma continued and even increased after their death and were transmitted and spread through their relics. Their mortifications and the signs of their holiness are comparable to those of the stylites and other hermits of Syria of late Antiquity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

35 pages, 17534 KiB

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Ernst Kantorowicz’s Synthronos: New Perspectives on Medieval Charisma

by Alfons Puigarnau

Religions 2023, 14(7), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070914 - 16 Jul 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1760

Abstract

In this text, the author analyzes the notion of charisma that appears implicitly in the medieval political theology of Ernst H. Kantorowicz. The text to be analyzed is Synthronos, a manuscript from 1951 on the iconography of the sharing-throne between gods and kings, which the author was unable to publish before he died. The notion of charisma is surveyed in St. Paul’s theology of grace and Max Weber’s sociology of dominion in order to find a third way to broaden the definition of charisma. Finally, a new perspective is proposed, based on literary and artistic representations, along with visual rhetoric, as driving forces of the ruler’s gifts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

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14 pages, 314 KiB

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They Are the Treasure of the Commonwealth: Franciscan Charisma and Merchant Culture in Medieval Barcelona

by Jaume Aurell

Religions 2023, 14(6), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060708 - 26 May 2023

Viewed by 1237

Abstract

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, it has been a truism that the emergence of Protestantism was the main cause of the development of capitalism. However, a careful analysis of primary sources, especially in Latin countries, shows a quite different reality. Three centuries before the emergence of Protestantism, the Franciscans generated a discourse that made it possible to begin to legitimize the commercial practices that would later enable the emergence of capitalism. Based on these premises, this article aims to explore the discursive and juridical primary sources of medieval Barcelona—especially the testimonies of the Franciscan intellectual Francesc Eiximenis and merchant wills—to provide relevant new data and interpretations of how Franciscan charisma brought about a better understanding and legitimization of mercantile work. I intend to use the concept of charisma to better understand the great paradox of how those who aspired to a life of extreme poverty—the Franciscans—succeeded in legitimizing the work of those who aspired to a comfortable life, namely, the emerging merchant group. The merchants provided the Franciscans with the material capital necessary for their establishment in the city, while the Franciscans granted the merchants symbolic capital that was indispensable for the development of their mercantile work, social recognition, and religious legitimacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

15 pages, 331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Charisma and Surgery in the Middles Ages: The Example of Henri de Mondeville, Surgeon of Philip IV the Fair

by Corinne Lamour

Religions 2023, 14(6), 699; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060699 - 25 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1659

Abstract

Based on Henri de Mondeville’s treatise on surgery, this article focuses on his practice and explores the surgeon’s awareness of the concept of charisma and its implications for his professional activities. It seeks to demonstrate the medieval textual continuity of the concept of charisma, its relevance to medieval medical vocation and training, and the fact that charisms remained central to the act of care for this surgeon, who acted for the common good and in fear of divine judgment. This essay looks at possible limiting factors in surgical practice, such as theological issues concerning the body and soul, or the consideration of the notion of moral responsibility. Do charisma, faith, and divine intervention absolve the surgeon from such responsibility? This article will examine whether de Mondeville’s surgical practice was based on predefined principles and non-intervention in the natural order of things or if, on the contrary, the medieval surgeon was accountable for his actions and their consequences independently of divine grace, due to his making a reasoned choice in the context of an ethical approach. This analysis shows that the elements involved in medical decision-making rely on a moral basis, influenced by the Christian religion and normed by religious texts, but do not exclude recourse to an applied code of ethics for specific cases, reserving all freedom of action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

23 pages, 11423 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Charisma of Fruits: From Greek Mythology to Genesis

by Anna-Maria Moubayed

Religions 2023, 14(5), 585; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14050585 - 29 Apr 2023

Viewed by 3179

Abstract

Concerned with the representations of fruits in Greco-Roman mythology and Genesis, this paper first explores the various meanings of charis and its conceptualization, and their embodiments. It then addresses object agency, before questioning the possible propriety of certain fruits in visual and textual narratives to emanate and/or appropriate charisma. To do so, the paper presents a discussion of the linguistic and conceptual mutability and malleability of the term ‘charis’ and its conceptualization into charisma, as well as its possible manifestations or translations in fruits, thus transforming the latter into (accidental) actors. Finally, this study provides an exploratory reflection on the ambiguity and metamorphic aspect of “charismatic” fruits in the context of myths and the Genesis narrative represented in the visual arts, and their translation into fairy tale narratives and modern advertising campaigns. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

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13 pages, 344 KiB

Open AccessArticle

«Ipse Perspicis Scilicet»: The Relation between Army and Religion in Constantinian Propaganda

by Álex Corona Encinas

Religions 2023, 14(4), 472; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040472 - 2 Apr 2023

Viewed by 1504

Abstract

This study aims to explore the connection between religious and military spheres in Constantinian propaganda. The extensive use of propaganda and the notorious public discourse which involves the dynamics of power during Late Antiquity show how religion and the military played a key role. This principle reaches a singular meaning in the case of emperor Constantine I. To this extent, this paper considers several kinds of sources, which include legal, literary, and numismatic, among others. An analysis of the political uses of imperial constitutions by the emperor (especially CTh 7.20.2) can be of particular interest in order to address the ideas of self-representation and the politics of legitimation. Ultimately, the paper highlights the importance of imperial propaganda in Later Roman society, as well as the transformations in Constantine’s public discourse, where the connection between army and religion shows an evolution from the previous ways of understanding imperial power and where the bond of the ruler with a supreme divinity is a central issue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

22 pages, 9398 KiB

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The Miracle of the Bloody Foreskin at the Council of Charroux in 1082: Legatine Authority, Religious Spectacle, and Charismatic Strategies of Canonical Reform in the Era of Gregory VII

by Peter Scott Brown

Religions 2023, 14(3), 330; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030330 - 1 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1789

Abstract

In 1082, at the council of Charroux convened by the papal legate Amatus of Oloron, astonished witnesses observed the Holy Prepuce, a rare body relic of Christ himself, to be miraculously spotted with fresh blood. This spectacular miracle holds implications for our understanding of charismatic strategies of religious reform in France in the era of Pope Gregory VII. Gregory’s use of standing legates with regional mandates, such as Amatus, was a novelty in papal administration, but the legates, though empowered as proxies of the pope, were often weak lieutenants. When they could not induce or coerce cooperation, they frequently confronted the impotence of their legal–canonical mandates. The miracle at Charroux, I will show, exemplifies an alternative charismatic strategy, harnessing liturgical art and spectacle to magnify the legate’s stature as an authority in the context of the Eucharistic controversy and religious reform. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

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9 pages, 315 KiB

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Building Charisma: The Post-Mortem Sanctity Attributed to the Prince of Viana (d. 1461)

by María Narbona Cárceles

Religions 2023, 14(3), 321; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030321 - 28 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1281

Abstract

This article aims to address the issue of post mortem charisma from the case of Carlos de Viana, crown prince of the kingdom of Navarre (1421–1461). Although he did not have a reputation for sanctity in life, from the moment of his death, miracles attributed to his intercession transformed devotion to ‘san’ Carlos de Viana into a mass phenomenon. The alleged sanctity of the Prince of Viana was part of a complex political process in which agents of the different peninsular states were involved in the second half of the 15th century and which led to the opening of a canonization process that would never see the light of day. But, at the same time, it is a good example of the notion of the charismatic figure, the miracle being one of the clearest manifestations of charisma, and of how it is possible to ‘build’ a charism post mortem. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

15 pages, 308 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Odor of a Holy Fame: The Problematic Charisma of King Louis IX (1214–1270)

by Amicie Pelissie du Rausas

Religions 2023, 14(3), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030305 - 23 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1763

Abstract

By attributing the term “charismatic” to Saint Louis, Jacques Le Goff identified two sources of charisma: sacred kingship and personal holiness. Without denying these aspects of the holy king’s reputation, we should investigate the nature of the charismatic relationship that linked Louis IX to his contemporaries. The sacrality of Louis IX pre-existed him; his sanctity is a post-death construction. What are the attributes of the living character that would allow us to recognize a charismatic personality? This paper argues that the religious aura of the king, which best echoes the Paulinian version of charisma, was sometimes at odds with the political expectations levied on a medieval ruler, which a Weberian definition of charisma helps to define. In this light, the crusades provided a unique setting where the king’s Christ-like qualities and his political leadership could be reconciled. To conduct this argument, this paper proposes to look for the symptoms of Louis IX’s living charisma in the reactions of his contemporaries, based on the re-examination of classical sources on the life of the king, carefully contextualized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Charisma in the Middle Ages)

11 pages, 282 KiB

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The Politics of Relics: The Charisma of Rulers and Martyrs in the Middle Ages

by Montserrat Herrero

Religions 2023, 14(3), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14030297 - 22 Feb 2023

Viewed by 1900

Abstract

Among the symbols used for representing power in the Middle Ages were the relics of saints and martyrs. When it came to political power, relics were one of the most cherished symbolic instruments to achieve legitimation of political power. However, no texts from the Middle Ages can be found that reflect the practice of associating relics with power. Rather, we have to assume or derive that reflection indirectly through narratives and stories around the relics present in the culture and religion of the time. This article reflects on the symbolic use of relics from a theological–political perspective: What kind of power acts through relics? What meaning of power is embodied in their political use of them? The thesis that the article will defend is that reflection on the politics of relics leads to a resignification of the idea of power in the Middle Ages, which is closely connected to the idea of charisma originating in the writings of the Apostle Paul. Full article

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