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Pathogens
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Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals
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Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals

A Special Issue of Pathogens (ISSN 2076-0817) belonging to the section "Parasitic Pathogens".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 February 2027 | Viewed by 5296

Editors

Dr. Coralie L'Ollivier

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Guest Editor
UMR D 257, Risques Infectieux, Microorganismes Emergents, Aix Marseille Université, AP-HM, IHU-Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France
Interests: clinical microbiology; parasite; toxoplasmosis; malaria; infectious diseases; molecular biology; epidemiology studies
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Younes Laidoudi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
UMR D257 RITMES, Aix-Marseille University, IHU Méditerranée Infection, 19-21 Boulevard Jean Moulin, 13005 Marseille, France
Interests: field epidemiology; zoonosis; bioinformatics; genomics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Toxoplasma gondii, found on every continent, is one of the world's most ubiquitous pathogens. This intracellular protozoan belongs to the subclass Coccidia and phylum Apicomplexa. Toxoplasma gondii is theoretically capable of infecting all homeotherms (mammals and birds) and is responsible for the zoonotic disease toxoplasmosis. In humans, the primary routes of infection are the consumption of undercooked meat containing parasite cysts of plants or water contaminated with oocysts released by felines into the environment, and congenital transmission. Infection, although generally asymptomatic in immunocompetent individuals, can cause severe ocular, cerebral and even multivisceral damage in immunocompromised patients, fetuses, and newborns. A growing number of studies suggest that the parasite's genetic diversity plays a role in its pathogenicity, and it appears that tropical zones with low levels of human settlement are more prone to severe forms. In animals, toxoplasmosis has significant veterinary and economic implications, particularly in livestock and companion animals. Given the large reservoir of this parasite, i.e., animals (both definitive and intermediate hosts), human medicine cannot perform without veterinary medicine. The scientific progress needed to control or better understand this zoonosis calls for a multidisciplinary approach.

This Special Issue aims to bring together recent advances in the epidemiology, diagnostics, transmission dynamics, host–pathogen interactions, public health implications, and control strategies for T. gondii. We welcome original research articles, reviews, and case studies that address both human and animal aspects of the disease, with an emphasis on One Health perspectives and interdisciplinary approaches to prevention and surveillance. By highlighting recent developments and challenges, this Special Issue seeks to inform clinical practice, veterinary medicine, and public health policy.

Dr. Coralie L'Ollivier
Dr. Younes Laidoudi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Pathogens is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Toxoplasma gondii
  • zoonosis
  • congenital toxoplasmosis
  • applied epidemiology
  • One Health
  • host–pathogen interaction
  • diagnostic methods
  • foodborne transmission

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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19 pages, 292 KB  
Article
Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii and Its Association with Sociodemographic Factors, Awareness and Exposure Practices Among Pregnant Women Attending Pumwani Maternity Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
by Cherotich Jesca Tangus, Bruno Enagnon Lokonon, Ndichu Maingi, James Chege Nganga, Davis Karanja Njuguna, Kariuki Njaanake, Hellen Njeri Maingi, Esther Gwae Kimaro, Kennedy Kwasi Addo, Gloria Ivy Mensah and Bassirou Bonfoh
Pathogens 2026, 15(9), 969; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15090969 - 11 Sep 2026
Abstract
Background: Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy may lead to congenital toxoplasmosis and serious pregnancy complications. In Kenya, however, toxoplasmosis is not screened during routine antenatal care, and there is limited local data on maternal seroprevalence and associated risk factors. This study determined [...] Read more.
Background: Toxoplasma gondii infection during pregnancy may lead to congenital toxoplasmosis and serious pregnancy complications. In Kenya, however, toxoplasmosis is not screened during routine antenatal care, and there is limited local data on maternal seroprevalence and associated risk factors. This study determined the seroprevalence of T. gondii infections. It examined its association with socio-demographic, obstetric characteristics, awareness levels, and exposure behaviours among pregnant women visiting the antenatal clinic at Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 298 pregnant women consecutively recruited at Pumwani Maternity Hospital in Nairobi County between July and October 2025. Data on socio-demographics, obstetric characteristics, knowledge, and exposure practices were collected using a structured questionnaire. Blood specimens were obtained from consenting prenatal patients, and anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies were detected by indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Associations between seropositivity and risk factors were assessed using univariable logistic regression, followed by two separate multivariable models. Variables with p < 0.25 were considered for multivariable analysis, followed by backward likelihood-ratio elimination. Model calibration was assessed using the Hosmer–Lemeshow test. Results: The overall seroprevalence of anti-T. gondii IgG was 24.5% (73 of 298). In the sociodemographic model, women who were self-employed (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.13–0.53) and formally employed (AOR = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.11–0.59) had lower odds of seropositivity than unemployed women. Women aged 25–33 years had higher odds than those aged 18–24 years (AOR = 2.45, 95% CI: 1.06–5.62). Having two children was associated with lower odds than a first birth (AOR = 0.40, 95% CI: 0.18–0.90), while parity of four or more showed a borderline increase in odds (AOR = 3.11, 95% CI: 0.99–9.76). In the knowledge/exposure model, good awareness of population risk groups was linked to higher odds of seropositivity (AOR = 3.34, 95% CI: 1.21–9.24), but exposure-practice variables were not independently associated. Stratified analyses showed significant demographic differences in exposure practices, such as eating undercooked meat in the third trimester of pregnancy (p = 0.021) and unwashed vegetable consumption by pregnant women from Kamkunji Sub-County (p = 0.005). Parity of three increased infection risk (p = 0.007). Conclusions: About 25% of participants showed evidence of prior T. gondii exposure. Seropositivity correlated with specific sociodemographic and obstetric factors as well as awareness of groups at risk. These results endorse targeted antenatal education that emphasises practical food safety and environmental hygiene, aligned with a One Health approach. Further longitudinal and multicenter research, including IgM and IgG avidity testing, is needed to differentiate recent from past infections and to better understand risks associated with congenital toxoplasmosis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals)
23 pages, 2214 KB  
Article
Identification of TgENT1 as the TgUUT1 Uracil/Uridine Transporter of Toxoplasma gondii
by Hamza A. A. Elati, Mariana Ferreira Silva, Lilach Sheiner and Harry P. de Koning
Pathogens 2026, 15(3), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15030266 - 2 Mar 2026
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1528
Abstract
The protozoan pathogen Toxoplasma gondii is responsible for toxoplasmosis, a disease that can be deadly in immunocompromised patients and the developing fetus during pregnancy. Current treatments are widely considered to be suboptimal. We have recently reported that 5-fluoropyrimidines have highly promising anti-toxoplasmosis effects [...] Read more.
The protozoan pathogen Toxoplasma gondii is responsible for toxoplasmosis, a disease that can be deadly in immunocompromised patients and the developing fetus during pregnancy. Current treatments are widely considered to be suboptimal. We have recently reported that 5-fluoropyrimidines have highly promising anti-toxoplasmosis effects and are internalized by the parasite by a high-affinity uracil/uridine transporter, TgUUT1. Here, we attempt to identify the gene encoding this transport protein. The only nucleoside or nucleobase family identified in the T. gondii genome was the Equilibrative Nucleoside Transporter (ENT) family, with four members. Of these, TgAT1 is known to be purine-specific, and deletion of the TgENT2 and TgENT3 genes, either separately or jointly, did not affect uridine transport or sensitivity to 5-fluoropyrimidines. In contrast, depletion of TgENT1, an essential gene, resulted in a significant reduction in the uptake of both uracil and uridine but not of the amino acid tryptophan. Moreover, expression of TgENT1 in a Leishmania mexicana cell line with low endogenous uracil uptake rates significantly increased uracil uptake for these cells. We conclude that it is highly probable that TgENT1 encodes the T. gondii uracil/uridine transporter. On the basis of our previous results, we infer that TgENT1 likely also mediates the uptake of 5-fluoropyrimidines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals)
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11 pages, 260 KB  
Article
The AB Blood Group System Phenotype Does Not Play a Role in Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Cats
by Eva Spada, Greta Tattarletti, Daniela Proverbio, Roberta Perego, Luciana Baggiani, Giulia Donato, Rosalia D’Agostino, Francesca Arcuri, Paola Galluzzo, Giuseppina Chiarenza, Valeria Blanda and Francesca Grippi
Pathogens 2025, 14(12), 1227; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14121227 - 1 Dec 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 982
Abstract
Previous studies have evaluated the association between different blood groups and human infection with Toxoplasma gondii. No similar studies exist in cats. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of some risk or protective factors, including the AB blood [...] Read more.
Previous studies have evaluated the association between different blood groups and human infection with Toxoplasma gondii. No similar studies exist in cats. The objective of this study was to evaluate the role of some risk or protective factors, including the AB blood type system phenotypes, in T. gondii infection in cats. Feline sera and surplus EDTA anticoagulated blood samples, for which AB blood group system phenotypes had been determined, were analyzed for T. gondii antibodies (ELISA, cut-off S/P% ≥ 50% and IFAT, cut-off ≥ 1:64) and DNA (nested and real-time PCR). T. gondii status and the characteristics of signalment (gender, breed, and age), lifestyle (stray, shelter, privately-owned), origin (Northern or Southern Italy), and retroviral infection serostatus of the population were evaluated using the Chi-square test, with calculation of the Odds Ratio (OR) in cases of statistically significant association (p < 0.05). A total of 199 samples were analyzed, of which 178 were phenotype A, 15 were phenotype B, and 6 were phenotype AB. Of these, 57/199 (28.6%) were positive for T. gondii: 5 were positive at PCR, 33 at ELISA, and 19 at IFAT. Of the 57 positive cats, 52/57 were phenotype A, 3/57 phenotype B, and 2/57 phenotype AB, with no significant association with T. gondii infection. FIV seropositive cats had a higher risk (OR = 3.1, p = 0.0043) of testing T. gondii positive. This study did not find an association between T. gondii infection and the feline blood types investigated; therefore, based on our results, AB blood group system phenotypes do not seem to play a role in Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats. These findings contribute to our knowledge of the role of blood types in disease susceptibility in cats. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals)

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9 pages, 550 KB  
Brief Report
Comparison of Serological Methods for the Diagnosis of Toxoplasmosis in Pregnant Women
by Nássarah Jabur Lot Rodrigues, Danilo Alves de França, Benedito Donizete Menozzi, Aristeu Vieira da Silva, Joelcio Francisco Abbade and Helio Langoni
Pathogens 2026, 15(4), 363; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens15040363 - 29 Mar 2026
Viewed by 1152
Abstract
Comparative evaluations of different serological methods for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women remain limited, and the performance of indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), modified agglutination test (MAT), and chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) has not been previously assessed simultaneously in this population. This [...] Read more.
Comparative evaluations of different serological methods for the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis in pregnant women remain limited, and the performance of indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), modified agglutination test (MAT), and chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA) has not been previously assessed simultaneously in this population. This study aimed to compare the performance of these three serological methods for the detection of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in pregnant women. A total of 469 serum samples were collected from pregnant women receiving prenatal care through the Brazilian public healthcare system. Samples were tested using IFA, MAT, and CMIA for the detection of IgG and IgM antibodies. Statistical analyses included McNemar’s χ2 test, Kappa agreement, and Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients. IFA and MAT showed higher IgG seropositivity rates (53.1% and 51.2%, respectively) compared to CMIA (46.7% and 48.6%). Agreement between CMIA and IFA was moderate for IgG (Kappa = 0.51) and very strong for IgM (Kappa = 0.89). Pearson’s correlation for IgG between CMIA and IFA was moderate (r = 0.678), while Spearman’s correlation for IgM was weak. IFA and MAT demonstrated greater sensitivity for IgG detection than CMIA, while CMIA and IFA performed similarly for IgM. Conventional methods may complement automated systems to improve diagnostic accuracy in prenatal screening. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals)
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8 pages, 5026 KB  
Case Report
Intraocular Coinfection by Toxoplasma gondii and EBV Possibly Transmitted Through Unpasteurized Goat Milk in an Immunocompetent Patient: A Case Report
by Juanita Cardona-López, Francisco J. Rodríguez, Ricardo Igua and Alejandra de-la-Torre
Pathogens 2025, 14(12), 1222; https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14121222 - 30 Nov 2025
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1040
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is the most common infectious cause of posterior uveitis in immunocompetent adults. While the parasite is typically acquired through ingestion of undercooked meat or contaminated food and water, unpasteurized goat milk has been identified as a less frequent but plausible source [...] Read more.
Toxoplasma gondii is the most common infectious cause of posterior uveitis in immunocompetent adults. While the parasite is typically acquired through ingestion of undercooked meat or contaminated food and water, unpasteurized goat milk has been identified as a less frequent but plausible source of infection. Coinfections in ocular toxoplasmosis are rare, and the role of Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) in these coinfections remains poorly understood. We report the case of a 70-year-old immunocompetent male presenting with severe, refractory panuveitis in the left eye. Initial serologic testing confirmed acquired Toxoplasma gondii infection, and treatment was initiated with systemic antimicrobials and corticosteroids. Intraocular inflammation persisted despite sequential therapy with trimethoprim–sulfamethoxazole, clindamycin, and azithromycin, eventually requiring pars plana vitrectomy with intravitreal clindamycin and dexamethasone due to non-clearing vitreous hemorrhage. Vitreous PCR testing revealed intraocular concurrent detection of EBV DNA, prompting combined antimicrobial and antiviral therapy. Epidemiological history revealed recent consumption of unpasteurized goat milk, suggesting a potential oral transmission route for Toxoplasma gondii. Although visual acuity improved following surgical intervention and targeted therapy, it remained markedly compromised due to the severity of the disease. This case illustrates the diagnostic value of multiplex PCR in refractory uveitis, enabling the detection of Toxoplasma gondii and the concurrent detection of EBV DNA in an immunocompetent patient. It highlights the importance of early molecular testing and detailed epidemiological assessment, including atypical transmission routes such as unpasteurized goat milk. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxoplasmosis in Humans and Animals)
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