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Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and...
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Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development

A special issue of Geosciences (ISSN 2076-3263).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2023) | Viewed by 9682

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Michael G. Petterson

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, St Peters Road, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
Interests: geotectonics; geoscience and international development; disaster and risk reduction; environmental geoscience; igneous geology and geochemistry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Robert Holm

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Principal Structural Geologist at Gold Fields, Perth, WA, Australia
Interests: structural geology; geophysical interpretation; geochronology; petrology
Dr. Joseph O. Espi

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Natural & Physical Sciences, University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea
Interests: gold deposit; geochemistry; petrology; economic geology

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In November 2022, the Mineral Resources Authority of Papua New Guinea (PNG) organised a conference based on the title above. The aim of the conference was to bring together elements of the diverse disciplines that support extractive industries, with a geoscience, social inclusion, and sustainable development theme. Papers were presented that addressed themes such as minerals, mining and energy, mineral and energy policy (national and global), managing the whole mining lifecycle from exploration to waste management and land rehabilitation, post-mining, geology, volcanology, seismicity, and tectonics, sustainable development, geoscience and society, critical metals and geomaterials for our future, green energy and climate change, reducing environmental risk and geometeorological hazard, geoscience education, and geoscience, women, gender, and wider social inclusivity.

PNG occupies half the area of the world’s second largest island. The country’s 9 million people are descendants of people who occupied the land as far back as 60,000 years ago.  PNG sits within a complex macro–micro plate tectonic framework that includes the huge Australian and Pacific plates and smaller Manus and Woodlark basins.  Distinct geological terranes comprise geology that varies from young volcanic islands to deformed arc crust, which has accreted since the Cretaceous to the Palaeozoic–pre-Cambrian Australian basement. Mineral and energy resources are found in abundance, including world-class epithermal and porphyry Au–Cu–Ag deposits, laterite Ni and Co, industrial and aggregate resources, and gas, geothermal, hydro, and solar energy. PNG’s numerous volcanic centres, seismic belts, active faults, and mountainous topography, alongside its tropical and ocean location, cumulatively generate a wide range of geohazards and hydro-meteorological hazards. Whilst PNG’s georesources have generated billions of dollars of wealth, controversy surrounds the resulting accrued benefits for indigenous peoples and local, regional, and national development.

This volume invites papers inspired by the themes of the November 2022 PNG conference.  Papers that address all aspects of the extractives industry and their impacts on the environment, society, and inclusive development, which have a PNG, Pacific islands, or Developing World focus are particularly welcomed, as are contributions from authors based in the Developing World. Similarly, papers that address the geotectonic and structural setting of extractive geomaterials are most welcome.

Prof. Dr. Michael Petterson
Dr. Robert Holm
Dr. Joseph O. Espi
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Geosciences is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

43 pages, 23420 KiB  
Article
The Petrology and Geochemistry of REE-Enriched, Alkaline Volcanic Rocks of Ambitle Island, Feni Island Group, Papua New Guinea
by Olive L. Ponyalou, Michael G. Petterson and Joseph O. Espi
Geosciences 2023, 13(11), 339; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13110339 - 06 Nov 2023
Viewed by 1718
Abstract
Ambitle in the Feni Island Group is located within the NW trending Tabar–Lihir–Tanga–Feni (TLTF) volcanic island chain, Melanesian Arc, northeastern Papua New Guinea. The TLTF chain is renowned for its alkaline magmatism, geothermal activity, copper–gold mineralization, and world-class gold mining. Although its geochemical [...] Read more.
Ambitle in the Feni Island Group is located within the NW trending Tabar–Lihir–Tanga–Feni (TLTF) volcanic island chain, Melanesian Arc, northeastern Papua New Guinea. The TLTF chain is renowned for its alkaline magmatism, geothermal activity, copper–gold mineralization, and world-class gold mining. Although its geochemical patterns indicate island arc signatures (i.e., high LILE and depleted HFSE), TLTF volcanism is not directly related to the older Melanesian Arc subduction system. However, it may have been influenced by source mantle metasomatism linked to the older subduction. The purpose of this study is to (1) present and interpret the petrographic, mineralogical, and geochemical data from Feni within the context of the tectonic evolution of the TLTF and (2) propose a geodynamic, petrogenetic model for the Feni volcanic rocks. The key methodologies used in this study are field mapping and sampling, petrographic analysis using the optical microscope, whole-rock geochemical analysis via XRF and ICP MS, and mineralogical analysis using an electron microprobe. The main rock types sampled in this study include feldspathoid-bearing basalt, trachybasalt, phonotephrite, trachyandesite, and trachydacite. Minerals identified include forsteritic olivine, diopside, augite, labradorite, andesine, anorthitic plagioclase, nepheline, and leucite in the primitive mafic suites, whereas the more evolved intermediate and felsic hypabyssal suites contain amphibole, albite, orthoclase, biotite, and either rare quartz or feldspathoids. Amphibole composition is primarily magnesiohastingsite with minor pargasite formed under polybaric conditions. Accessory minerals include apatite, titanite, and Ti-magnetite. We propose that limestone assimilation followed by fractional crystallization are plausible dominant processes in the geochemical evolution of the Ambitle volcanics. Clinopyroxene fractionation is dominant in the mafic volcanics whereas hornblende fractionation is a major petrologic process within the intermediate suites proven by the enrichment of LREE and depletions in MREE and HREE. Feni magmas are also highly enriched in REEs relative to neighboring arcs. This study is globally significant as alkaline magmas are important sources of Cu, Au, and REE as critical elements for green energy and modern technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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29 pages, 6953 KiB  
Article
Provenance of the Papuan Peninsula (Papua New Guinea): Zircon Inheritance from Miocene–Pliocene Volcanics and Volcaniclastics
by Robert J. Holm, Kelly Heilbronn, Dulcie Saroa and Gideon Maim
Geosciences 2023, 13(11), 324; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13110324 - 25 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1384
Abstract
Plate tectonic reconstructions of Papua New Guinea prior to the late Cenozoic are characterized by a lack of provenance data to constrain the relative origin of the allochthonous terranes. At present, plate tectonic reconstructions of this region infer that the accreted New Guinea [...] Read more.
Plate tectonic reconstructions of Papua New Guinea prior to the late Cenozoic are characterized by a lack of provenance data to constrain the relative origin of the allochthonous terranes. At present, plate tectonic reconstructions of this region infer that the accreted New Guinea terranes at the northern Australian continental margin are likely autochthonous or para-autochthonous in nature. This study presents the results of an investigation into zircons derived from Miocene–Pliocene volcanics and volcaniclastics of the Papuan Peninsula. Results from U-Pb zircon geochronology inform the recent geological history of the Papuan Peninsula, with magmatism active in the late Miocene and early Pliocene, between approximately 9 Ma and 4.5 Ma. More significantly, however, is the recognition of extensive inherited zircon grains within the volcanic and volcaniclastic sequences. These inherited zircon grains are most likely sourced from the Owen Stanley Metamorphics, which form the basement rocks of the Papuan Peninsula. Provenance of the inherited zircon grains imply that the Cretaceous volcaniclastic protolith of the Owen Stanley Metamorphics must have had input from continental detritus, but this cannot be derived from North Queensland, Australia as inferred by current reconstructions. Instead, zircon U-Pb age spectra correlate with probable source regions further to the south, adjacent to the Shoalwater Formation of the Central Queensland margin, and New Caledonia. These findings suggest that late Mesozoic and Cenozoic regional reconstructions of eastern Australia and the Southwest Pacific require major revision and that additional work is undertaken to inform the provenance of such allochthonous terranes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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18 pages, 4577 KiB  
Article
A Comparative Study of Gender Disparities in Geoscience and Mining in Mongolia
by Gerel Ochir, Munkhtsengel Baatar, Myagmarsuren Sanjaa and Helen Williams
Geosciences 2023, 13(9), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13090262 - 29 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1233
Abstract
Mongolian women enjoy equal rights and actively participate in various sectors of the national economy, including the mineral and mining industry. The Mongolian University of Science and Technology (MUST), the largest university in Mongolia, plays a crucial role in preparing engineers for the [...] Read more.
Mongolian women enjoy equal rights and actively participate in various sectors of the national economy, including the mineral and mining industry. The Mongolian University of Science and Technology (MUST), the largest university in Mongolia, plays a crucial role in preparing engineers for the Mongolian industry. Within MUST, the School of Geology and Mining Engineering (SGME) stands out as one of the largest schools, boasting a dedicated team of 136 staff members. Impressively, 92 of these staff members are female, constituting a remarkable 67.65% of the total staff. The directorial board of SGME, consisting of 12 members, also demonstrates a noteworthy level of gender diversity, with 5 of its members being female. This represents a proportion of 41.67% and highlights the inclusion of women in decision-making positions. Additionally, it is worth noting that the Geology and Hydrogeology department, one of the five departments within the School, is led by a capable female leader. However, despite the encouraging representation of women among staff and in leadership roles, there is a noticeable disparity in the enrollment and graduation rates of students at SGME. Currently, these rates stand at only about 20–24 percent, indicating the need for further efforts to encourage and support female students in pursuing geology and mining engineering studies. Outside of academia, within the mining industry, the Oyu Tolgoi large-scale mine, which in 2022 employed 20,328 workers, faces a significant gender imbalance. Out of this workforce, only 3577 are women, comprising a mere 18% of the total employees, while the remaining 82% are men. Among the 2997 total employees in the open pit mine, 737 women are employed in various roles, including 66 engineers and technicians, with the remaining 671 in other positions. In the newly opened underground mine, the total number of women employees stands at 2840, including 248 engineers and technicians and 2592 in other roles. Furthermore, on the Board of Directors, there are only 2 women out of a total of 23 managers, and a mere 104 women hold positions as senior staff and superintendents. A comparative analysis between Asia and other global regions reveals that female employment in Mongolia’s mining sector in general, at 18%, closely aligns with Oceania’s rates (17%) and surpasses those of both the broader Asian region (13%) and South America (11%). Addressing these statistical imbalances is crucial to improving gender equality in geoscience and mining. Historically, the mining industry has been male-dominated, but women-led professional geoscience and mining organizations in Mongolia play a vital role in promoting the recruitment, retention, and advancement of women in these industries. Recognizing the significance of gender diversity, these organizations strive to increase the representation of women in leadership positions. Women in leadership bring unique perspectives that contribute to well-rounded decision-making processes within organizations. By acknowledging the importance of gender dynamics, promoting inclusivity, and supporting the professional growth of Mongolian women in geoscience and mining, the overall development and sustainability of these sectors in the country will be greatly enhanced. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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22 pages, 7630 KiB  
Article
Twenty-Two Years of GPS Monitoring at Rabaul Caldera, a Narrative History
by Steve Saunders, Eric Tenor, Joseph Wakawa and John Nohou
Geosciences 2023, 13(8), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13080249 - 18 Aug 2023
Viewed by 973
Abstract
It has long been recognised that volcanoes deform as fluids migrate, or change pressure in fractures and reservoirs within the volcano or in the crust below and around them. Calderas in particular have been shown to deform in complex and often major ways. [...] Read more.
It has long been recognised that volcanoes deform as fluids migrate, or change pressure in fractures and reservoirs within the volcano or in the crust below and around them. Calderas in particular have been shown to deform in complex and often major ways. The Rabaul Caldera is a type example of a caldera that undergoes complex and occasionally rapid deformation. This was first recognised by visual observations, and by the 1970s these movements were being monitored by traditional surveying techniques. Between 1972 and 1994, the centre of the caldera was uplifted by approximately 2 m. Following the 1994 eruption, it was indirectly found that parts of the caldera were uplifted ~6 m in the final hours before the eruption. It was realized that ‘real-time’ monitoring of the uplift may have given a better warning that an eruption was imminent. Traditional surveying techniques are time consuming; in the late 1990s, the only option for real-time monitoring was a Global Positioning System (GPS). By early 2000, a real-time GPS system was working at Rabaul Volcanological Observatory (RVO). Twenty-two years of continually recording differential GPS or Global Navigational Satellite System (GNSS) has proven the technique to be of immense importance. Often it has been the only parameter showing that unrest is happening. At times, inflation and deflation have warned of impending activity or recorded the emptying of the system; at other times, patterns of deformation have been more difficult to interpret. The technique has proven its worth in monitoring the status or general ‘health’ of the caldera, but for more precise forecasts it can only form part of an integrated monitoring system. Current testing of much cheaper receivers and improvements in telemetry mean the technique may soon be available for the more remote volcanoes of Papua New Guinea. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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17 pages, 23062 KiB  
Article
Structural and Tectonic Evolution of the Porgera Gold Mine; Highlands of Papua New Guinea
by Kevin C. Hill, Gareth T. Cooper, Agnes Pokondepa, Peter Essy, Thiwaporn Phonsit and Mark Haydon
Geosciences 2023, 13(8), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13080234 - 07 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1324
Abstract
The Porgera Transfer Zone (PTZ) is a major crustal and probably lithospheric structure across Papua New Guinea recording >50 km offset of ophiolites and very different patterns of geology and topography on either side. In the Late Jurassic, the PTZ probably separated oceanic [...] Read more.
The Porgera Transfer Zone (PTZ) is a major crustal and probably lithospheric structure across Papua New Guinea recording >50 km offset of ophiolites and very different patterns of geology and topography on either side. In the Late Jurassic, the PTZ probably separated oceanic crust and thick Jurassic Om shales to the west from a continental promontory to the east. During the Late Miocene to Recent orogenesis, the differential compression of these features is interpreted to have created a dextral strike slip fault across the fold belt with pull-apart basins at sites of fault relays. This facilitated the ascent of intrusions and mineralization at Porgera. The acquisition of high-resolution LIDAR data semi-regionally around the Porgera Gold Mine greatly improved interpretation of the regional geology and particularly the recognition of normal faults. By correlating with sparse dip data and paly-dated samples, it was possible to create stratigraphic sections and interpret structural cross-sections using the LIDAR data. As the area involved strike–slip offsets, it was important to construct sections in multiple orientations in order to interpret the 3D geology. Both dips and fault orientation could be directly inferred from the LIDAR data such that sections could be constructed orthogonally to them. A balanced, restored and forward-modelled cross-section illustrates the interaction between thrust faults and normal faults during compression and that it was synchronous with the development of a pull-apart basin. A semi-regional 3D geological model, which was developed mainly from the LIDAR data, supports the hypothesis of inversion of the thick Om beds to the west before or during compression of the continental promontory to the east resulting in dextral strike–slip offsets across the PTZ. A jog or relay in the faults occurred and caused a pull-apart collapse basin to develop in the area of the Porgera mine. Similar pull-apart graben, or negative flower structures, were detected nearby and may be areas for future exploration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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25 pages, 38419 KiB  
Article
Analysing Civilian Video Footage for Enhanced Scientific Understanding of the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake and Tsunami, Japan, with Implications for PNG and Pacific Islands
by Caitlin Mcdonough-Margison, Graham Hinchliffe and Michael G. Petterson
Geosciences 2023, 13(7), 203; https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences13070203 - 03 Jul 2023
Viewed by 1975
Abstract
Approximately 70% of global tsunamis are generated within the pan Pacific Ocean region. This paper reports on detailed analysis of civilian video footage from the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, Japan. Comprehensive scientific analysis of tsunami video footage can yield valuable insights into geophysical processes [...] Read more.
Approximately 70% of global tsunamis are generated within the pan Pacific Ocean region. This paper reports on detailed analysis of civilian video footage from the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, Japan. Comprehensive scientific analysis of tsunami video footage can yield valuable insights into geophysical processes and impacts. Civili22an video footage captured during the 2011 Tohoku, East Honshu, Japan tsunami was critically examined to identify key tsunami processes and estimate local inundation heights and flow velocity in Kesennuma City. Significant tsunami processes within the video were captured and orientated in ArcGIS Pro to create an OIC (Oriented Imagery Catalogue). The OIC was published to ArcGIS Online, and the oriented imagery was configured into an interactive website. Flow velocity was estimated by quantifying the distance and time taken for an object to travel between two known points in the video. Estimating inundation height was achieved by taking objects with known or calculable dimensions and measuring them against maximum local inundation height observations. The oriented imagery process produced an interactive Experience Builder app in ArcGIS Online, highlighting key tsunami processes captured within the video. The estimations of flow velocity and local inundation height quantified during video analysis indicate flow speeds ranging from 2.5–4.29 m/s and an estimated maximum local run-up height of 7.85 m in Kesennuma City. The analysis of civilian video footage provides a remarkable opportunity to investigate tsunami impact in localised areas of Japan and around the world. These data and analyses inform tsunami hazard maps, particularly in reasonably well-mapped terrains with remote access to landscape data. The results can aid in the understanding of tsunami behaviours and help inform effective mitigation strategies in tsunami-vulnerable areas. The affordable, widely accessible analysis and methodology presented here has numerous applications, and does not require highly sophisticated equipment. Tsunamis are a significant to major geohazard globally including many Pacific Island states, e.g., Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Tonga. Video footage geoscientific analysis, as here reported, can benefit tsunami and cyclone storm surge hazards in the Pacific Islands region and elsewhere. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Geoscience, Exploration and Extraction: Empowering Geoscience for Inclusive Growth and Sustainable Development)
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