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New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments

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A special issue of Environments (ISSN 2076-3298). This special issue belongs to the section "Environmental Pollution, Toxicology and Restoration".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2026 | Viewed by 12535

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Editors

Dr. Panagiotis Papazotos

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Guest Editor

1. School of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Division of Geo-sciences, National Technical University of Athens, 9 Heroon Polytechniou St, 15773 Zografou, Greece
2. Hellenic Survey of Geology and Mineral Exploration, 1 Sp. Louis St., 13677 Acharnae, Greece
Interests: potentially toxic elements; water-rock/soil interaction; environmental geochemistry; stables isotopes tracing; hydrogeochemical processes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Eleni Gianni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Environment, Ionian University, Zakynthos, Greece
Interests: mineralogical characterization; clay, clay mineral, and other natural material used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical, energy, and environmental applications; nanocomposites’ synthesis and characterization; molecular simulations (quantum and classical) of clay minerals interacted with organic or inorganic materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Dionisios Panagiotaras

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Department of Environment, Ionian University, Zakynthos, Greece
Interests: geochemical processes; biogeochemical cycles; soil and sediment chemistry; water-rock interaction; water-sediment interaction; hydrogeochemistry; groundwater chemistry

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Evaluating and understanding the dynamic interactions between water, rock, and soil is fundamental in relation to tackling many complex environmental challenges. These interactions play a key role in controlling the occurrence, mobilization, transformation, transport, and fate of contaminants in both groundwater and soil systems in the context of complex environmental settings. The Sources–Pathways–Receptors (SPR) framework, as well as the responses shaped by natural (geogenic) processes and anthropogenic influences within these interconnected systems, affects environmental quality, ecosystem health, and public health. This Special Issue (SI) seeks to highlight recent advances in understanding water–rock–soil interactions across diverse environmental settings and under varying degrees of anthropogenic influence, including natural systems with minimal human impact. The focus is on elucidating the implications of these interactions for contamination sources, contaminant transport, biogeochemical processes, and system responses under different environmental and climatic conditions. Furthermore, this SI also welcomes studies on geochemical interactions related to the underground storage of various substances (e.g., CO₂, hydrogen, etc.). The goal is to foster interdisciplinary dialogue by showcasing innovative approaches from the fields of geochemistry, soil science, mineralogy, hydrogeology, environmental engineering, and beyond. These contributions aim to provide a more comprehensive understanding of water–rock–soil interactions and an evaluation of SPR within realistic, holistic environmental contexts, including systems that explicitly include human activities and their impacts.

We welcome contributions that provide new insights into the behavior of contaminants in surface and subsurface environments, such as groundwater, soil, and their interface. This includes original research articles, reviews, case studies, and methodological innovations.

Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, the following:

Geochemical fingerprinting of water–rock–soil interactions in natural and anthropogenically influenced environments.
Geochemical interactions in underground storage facilities (e.g., for energy storage and radioactive waste).
Sources, transport mechanisms, and fate of contaminants in water resources and soil.
Mobility of contaminants as influenced by geochemical and biogeochemical processes.
Roles of mineral dissolution/precipitation, redox transformations, and sorption mechanisms in controlling the distribution and transport of contaminants in soil and aquatic systems.
Understanding the environmental geochemistry of potentially toxic elements (PTEs), nutrients, and emerging contaminants (e.g., per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances [PFASs] and micro/nano-plastics).
Advances in field monitoring, laboratory experiments, and modeling of water–rock–soil systems.
Impacts of climate change, land use, and anthropogenic stressors on environmental (water and soil) systems.
Innovative analytical tools and methodologies for tracing contamination sources and pathways.
Urban and peri-urban soil and groundwater geochemical analysis.
Remediation technologies and strategies.
Scientometric approaches in environmental sciences.

This SI aims to foster a collaborative platform bridging researchers from a wide range of environmental disciplines. Sharing ideas, insights, and breakthroughs related to surface and subsurface environments contributes to a deeper collective understanding of how water, rock, and soil interact. This understanding plays a key role in shaping effective strategies for the sustainable management of land and water.

We look forward to your contributions.

Dr. Panagiotis Papazotos
Dr. Eleni Gianni
Dr. Dionisios Panagiotaras
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-anonymized peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Environments is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

potentially toxic elements
contaminants of emerging concern
geochemical processes
geochemical modeling
environmental isotopes
climate change
groundwater quality
source–pathway–receptor approach
soil quality
environmental monitoring
remediation

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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21 pages, 1837 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Agricultural Practices on Metal Accumulation and Their Associated Health Risks to the Environment and Consumers: A One Health Perspective

by Eva Doménech and Isabel Escriche

Environments 2026, 13(4), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13040217 - 16 Apr 2026

Viewed by 960

Abstract

In the context of the One Health approach, this study assessed the environmental and human health risks posed by 21 chemical elements in soil and in food products (bee pollen, honey, and orange fruits). Data were collected from three cultivated and one uncultivated field, considering the agricultural practices employed. Findings revealed higher metal concentrations in the uncultivated field: Zn > Fe > Pb > Co > Cr > Mn > Ni > Al > Mo > P > B. No significant differences were noted for Ca, Cd, Cu, Sb, Se, and U. The geo-accumulation index indicated moderate Cu accumulation in cultivated fields. Only Hg in uncultivated soil poses a considerable risk at the 95th percentile. Orange fruits showed the lowest metal concentration, whereas bee pollen displayed the highest. In this last product, some elements are present at levels up to 10 times those in other food items, primarily Al, Fe, Zn, and Mn. The hazard quotient for non-genotoxic effects was below 1, indicating low concern. In terms of cancer risk, the levels of Pb and Cd were acceptable, while Ni in beehive products and orange fruits posed a moderate risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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25 pages, 2159 KB

Open AccessArticle

LDPE, PP, and PET Microplastics’ Influence on Cd and Cu Behavior in Diverse Soils

by Dimitrios Alexiadis, Evangelia E. Golia, Rafaella Vogia and Jose Navarro-Pedreño

Environments 2026, 13(4), 180; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13040180 - 25 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1444

Abstract

The increasing accumulation of microplastics (MPs) in soils necessitates a better understanding of their effects on soil chemistry and trace element behavior. This study examined the influence of three MPs—low-density poly(ethylene) (LDPE), polypropylene (PP), and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET)—on cadmium (Cd) and copper (Cu) mobility in four clayey–sandy soils with similar organic matter content but differing pH, representing acidic and alkaline terrestrial matrices. Soils were incubated with 1% (w/w) MPs at 60% water-holding capacity for 30 and 90 days. Total Cd and Cu concentrations remained largely unaffected; however, time-dependent changes in metal availability and distribution were observed. Extractability (CaCl₂ and DTPA), sequential BCR fractionation, and environmental risk indices (CF, Igeo, RAC, MF, and PLI) indicated slight increases in Cd availability after 30 days, which became more pronounced after 90 days, particularly in acidic soils (pH 5.5). The magnitude of the MP effect followed the trend PET > PP > LDPE in all cases. Among the two target metals, Cd exhibited substantially higher mobility than Cu, as reflected by RAC and MF values. Specifically, Cd RAC (6–35%) and Cd MF (28–63%) values were considerably higher than those of Cu (1.1–3.8% and 15–28%, respectively). Overall, although the general pollution indices remained relatively stable, MPs altered the extractability and geochemical partitioning of the examined heavy metals—particularly Cd—indicating their potential role as vectors in soil environments. These results demonstrate that incubation time, polymer type, and soil pH jointly regulate MP-induced change in Cd and Cu mobility, with important implications for soil ecosystem risk. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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15 pages, 1629 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterisation of Different-Size Particulate Matter in an Urban Location

by Sónia Pereira, Alexandra Guedes and Helena Ribeiro

Environments 2026, 13(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13020123 - 21 Feb 2026

Viewed by 739

Abstract

This study investigates the characterisation of particulate matter (PM) across different size fractions (TSP, PM₁₀, PM₄, PM_2.5, and PM₁) in Porto, Portugal, over a 2-year period. Sampling was conducted at two heights (ground level and rooftop), integrating real-time measurements and filter-based analyses to evaluate seasonal and spatial variations. Elemental composition was determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS), enabling detailed assessments of 30 chemical elements. Meteorological parameters, including temperature, precipitation, wind speed, and direction, were analysed to understand their influence on PM concentrations. Results indicate that significant seasonal trends, with higher PM concentrations observed during autumn and winter, were associated with low boundary layer height, promoting greater mixing of particles, enhanced deposition, and higher anthropogenic emissions, with average seasonal TSP values ranging from 0.001 to 0.059 µg m⁻³. Elemental analysis revealed distinct profiles at ground and rooftop levels, with Ba, Cu, Pb, Mg, and Na among the most frequently detected elements; ground-level samples showed stronger contributions from local sources, such as traffic, while rooftop samples reflected regional and long-range transport. Meteorological factors, such as precipitation and wind speed, exhibited negative correlations with PM concentrations, underscoring their role in atmospheric washing. These findings highlight the complex interplay of local and regional factors in shaping PM dynamics and emphasise the importance of multi-level monitoring for effective air-quality management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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19 pages, 1472 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Uptake of Toxic Elements by Brassica rapa and Associated Health Risks in Soils with Different Natural Background Levels

by Maurizio Ambrosino, Eleonora Di Salvo, Vincenzo Nava, Shashank Sagar Saini, Claudia Genovese, Nicola Cicero, Giuseppe Diego Puglia and Domenico Cicchella

Environments 2026, 13(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13020106 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 1458

Abstract

This research investigates the uptake of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) by Brassica rapa L. grown in volcanic and clay soils with high natural background levels of these elements, and assesses related human health risks. The study was conducted in two Italian regions that produce B. rapa L. for food use (Campania and Sicily). The results of this exploratory research indicate that the naturally elevated concentrations of PTEs in soils lead to correspondingly high levels of these elements in B. rapa L. The investigated soils exhibited marked chemical differences. Volcanic soils had higher Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and PTEs concentrations alongside lower pH and Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) than clayey soils. In the investigated plants, PTEs accumulated mainly in roots and stems, with notable Hg levels in leaves. While As exceeded safety limits in only one edible sample from volcanic soil, Cd, Hg, and Pb frequently surpassed them. Health risk assessments revealed significant carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks from plants grown on volcanic soils, with levels that remain unacceptable even at low consumption rates. In contrast, lower risk levels are associated with the consumption of Brassica rapa grown in clay soils, with values that are generally considered tolerable at low consumption rates. The preliminary findings of this study highlight that natural soil enrichment can cause PTE levels in B. rapa L. that often exceed safe consumption thresholds. These results provide a foundation for future research aimed at more thoroughly investigating the mechanisms of metal uptake by edible plants in areas naturally enriched with PTEs in order to enhance the safety and sustainability of our food. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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Review

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25 pages, 2179 KB

Open AccessReview

Process-Based Framework for Chlorinated Vapor Intrusion Mitigation Strategies at Contaminated Sites

by Clarissa Settimi, Daniela Zingaretti, Renato Baciocchi and Iason Verginelli

Environments 2026, 13(6), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13060327 - 9 Jun 2026

Viewed by 453

Abstract

This review presents a process-based decision-making framework for chlorinated vapor intrusion (CVI) mitigation. CVI mitigation refers to the set of engineered strategies aimed at interrupting, attenuating or transforming vapor fluxes before they reach indoor environments. Existing literature and technical guidelines typically classify mitigation strategies according to technological configuration (active versus passive), rather than physical and chemical processes governing vapor transport and attenuation, which may lead to suboptimal design choices and reduced system resilience. To address this limitation, this framework proposes a process-based classification of CVI mitigation strategies based on the dominant mechanisms controlling vapor migration in subsurface. Five mechanistic categories are identified: driving-force control through pressure manipulation, dilution via air exchange, diffusive flux control through physical barriers, density-driven attenuation in permeable sub-slab layers, and in situ transformation based on sorption or degradation. By explicitly linking mitigation technologies to transport and transformation processes, the proposed framework provides a structured basis for mechanism-oriented selection, integrating performance, longevity, climate resilience, and lifecycle energy demand. In addition to established mitigation approaches, such as sub-slab depressurization, this work highlights emerging passive strategies, including high permeable granular layers and horizontal reactive or adsorbing barriers, as potential low-energy alternatives for durable management. Overall, the proposed framework supports site-specific, sustainability-oriented decision-making on CVI mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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24 pages, 702 KB

Open AccessReview

Microplastics and Antimicrobial Resistance Genes in Surface Waters Under European Union Regulatory Progress

by Alexandre Aleluia, Luís Gabriel Barboza, Carla Novais, Patrícia Antunes, Ana R. Freitas and Joana C. Prata

Environments 2026, 13(5), 283; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13050283 - 19 May 2026

Viewed by 768

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), emerging pollutants in surface waters, are viewed as a serious risk to freshwater ecosystems and public health. This review synthesizes current scientific knowledge, regulatory approaches, and monitoring methodologies on the presence and impact of these contaminants following a drivers-pressures-state-impact-response (DPSIR) framework. Major anthropogenic factors, such as pharmaceutical consumption and agricultural intensification, are putting pressure on water bodies through industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and untreated or inadequately treated wastewaters. In order to gauge the current environmental state and discuss the impact on human and ecosystem health within a One Health framework, it is necessary to generate monitoring data and identify methodological gaps in the interaction between MPs and ARGs. Despite recent European Union (EU) regulatory progress, such as the Drinking Water Directive and the Water Framework Directive, substantial gaps remain in methodology standardization as well as practical implementation. This review underscores the need to establish enforceable thresholds and standardize monitoring protocols to effectively mitigate the growing prevalence and consequences of these contaminants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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38 pages, 3448 KB

Open AccessReview

Unraveling Microplastics: Sources, Environment and Health Impacts, and Detection Techniques

by Yuliu Li, Roberto Pizzoferrato, Luca Burratti and Eleonora Nicolai

Environments 2026, 13(3), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13030134 - 1 Mar 2026

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2622

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) have become a widespread environmental contaminant, raising concern due to their persistence, capacity to transport pollutants, and potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Their increasing global production, prolonged degradation, and ubiquity in aquatic environments underscore the need for improved monitoring and mitigation strategies. Current findings indicate widespread MP contamination, including within the human body, emphasizing significant ecological and health concerns. This review examines the definition, sources, environmental transport mechanisms, associated risks, and current detection methods for MPs in natural and engineered water systems. The methods discussed encompass a broad range of analytical and sensing technologies used to identify, characterize, and quantify MPs across diverse environmental matrices. The review highlights that no single technique is sufficient for comprehensive MP analysis; instead, the combination of multiple methods enhances sensitivity, specificity, and reliability. Progress in automated sample preparation, advanced sensing platforms and standardized methodologies is key to improving detection efficiency and comparability across different studies. In particular, the extensive body of scientific literature underscores the imperative for standardized and harmonized protocols regarding data collection and analysis, as well as homogeneous limits of detection and units of measurement. Reducing MP pollution will require interdisciplinary collaboration, regulatory action, and increased public awareness to protect environmental integrity and human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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37 pages, 15528 KB

Open AccessReview

Enantioselective Chromatographic Methods for Detection of Fungicides in Complex Environmental Matrices: Advances and Applications

by Beatriz Suordem, Ana M. Gorito, Marta O. Barbosa, Maria Elizabeth Tiritan, Cláudia Ribeiro and Ana Rita L. Ribeiro

Environments 2026, 13(2), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13020109 - 15 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1053

Abstract

Many organic fungicides are chiral and are used in diverse application areas, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, agrochemicals, and industry. Fungicides have valuable effects such as preventing fungal infestations and the treatment of diseases, but their generalized use resulted in their occurrence in diverse environmental compartments which is an increasing environmental concern with negative impact on non-target organisms and human health risks. Besides, enantiomers of chiral fungicides may exhibit distinct bioactivity including toxicity and degradation profiles. Therefore, monitoring their enantioselective occurrence in the environment is essential to accurately assess enantioselective (eco)toxicity and establish environmental quality standard levels. This review provides the first comprehensive and critically interpretative assessment of enantioselective chromatographic methods for the determination of fungicides, with a primary focus on azole compounds, in complex environmental matrices (e.g., soil, sediment, plants, earthworms, sewage sludge, water, wastewater) due to their regulatory relevance in the EU Watch Lists, frequent occurrence in environmental matrices, and specific analytical challenges associated with their chiral nature. Other fungicide classes are also included, since other fungicides (either chiral or achiral) reported in the articles retrieved by the literature search, were also evaluated, integrating methodological, analytical and regulatory dimensions. Liquid chromatography was identified as the predominant analytical technique, with polysaccharide-based chiral stationary phases being the most frequently used, while sample preparation was mainly based on solid-phase extraction and QuEChERS-based approaches for complex environmental matrices. Analytical performance parameters were compared to highlight strengths and limitations of reported methods, while environmental monitoring data were reviewed, identifying soil and water as matrices with the highest reported chiral fungicide levels. The urgent need to develop robust enantioselective analytical methods to recognize the distinctive biological and toxicological properties of individual enantiomers are critically discussed. By revealing persistent gaps in enantioselective workflows and regulatory differentiation between enantiomers, it highlights the need for robust analytical approaches and reliable monitoring strategies to contribute for future enantiomer-specific environmental risk assessment frameworks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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18 pages, 2998 KB

Open AccessReview

Pathways from Source to Human Exposure of Platinum, Palladium, and Rhodium: A Comprehensive Review

by Maria Economou-Eliopoulos, George Eliopoulos, Ioannis-Porfyrios Eliopoulos, Federica Zaccarini and Giorgio Garuti

Environments 2026, 13(1), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/environments13010053 - 19 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1783

Abstract

The principal global sources of platinum-group elements (Os, Ir, Ru, Rh, Pt, Pd), collectively referred to as PGEs, are magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposits associated with large, layered intrusions, such as the Bushveld Complex. Recent exploration efforts have identified rock types with elevated PGE concentrations, although their potential remains uncertain. This comprehensive review synthesizes the current knowledge regarding potential sources from both natural magmatic and anthropogenic activities, as well as the environmental risks associated with the Pt, Pd, and Rh sub-group, or PPGEs. The order of Pd > Pt > Rh content in emitted particulates has been documented in dust and soil along roadsides, whereas in Fe-Ni laterite, Pt tends to accumulate residually at the top of profiles due to the higher mobility of Pd compared to Pt and Rh. The greater mobility and transfer of Pd are evidenced by higher bioaccumulation factors for Pd in plants and crops, with a higher Pd content observed in roots than in shoots. The effects of chronic occupational exposure to Pt compounds, such as allergic reactions affecting the skin and respiratory system of workers, are well-documented. Although no established permissible limits for Pt, Pd, and Rh in soil, water, or plants exist within major regulatory frameworks, the increasing applications of PPGEs and the use of Pd in catalytic converters (due to its lower cost) underscore the need for further studies on the recycling of spent catalytic converters, health impacts, ecotoxicological assessments, and the application of current technological advances to mitigate exhaust emissions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights into the Occurrence, Mobility, Transport, and Fate of Contaminants in Surface and Subsurface Environments)

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