The Role of Education in the Face of Climate Change and Disasters: Public Policies from Spain

Abstract

Education plays a crucial role in climate adaptation and mitigation, specifically in the current context of environmental challenges and disasters. This article analyzes initiatives to integrate content on sustainability, climate change, and disaster risk reduction into Spanish educational legislation and other specific regulations, such as civil protection. It reviews the alignment of Spanish legislation with international frameworks such as the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sendai Framework, as well as the incorporation of environmental and climate education into regulations related to climate change and civil protection. The article highlights the importance of teacher training and the recent implementation of a mandatory disaster education plan following a devastating rainfall and flood disaster in 2024 (known in Spanish as the DANA disaster), which aims to strengthen the resilience and preparedness of the entire educational community. It concludes that significant progress has been made in integrating this content into the curriculum. However, the challenge of consolidating a culture of climate change awareness in Spanish society remains.

1. Introduction

Scientific evidence shows that our planet is approaching several environmental and climate tipping points faster than predicted. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is among the organizations that confirm this challenge in its report on the state of the global climate in 2025. Preliminary findings confirm that high temperatures have exacerbated extreme weather events, including heat waves, torrential rainfall, and intense tropical cyclones [1]. This means that the international community faces a rapidly closing window of opportunity to achieve profound transformations across all sectors, systems, and mindsets, thereby ensuring a sustainable and habitable future [2]. Urgent sustainability challenges demand accelerated and transformative change. Climate change-related disasters can create opportunities to accelerate this shift toward sustainability by breaking down the barriers of business as usual, but only if a new generation of change agents knows how to seize them. However, some authors argue that current educational programs in sustainability and disaster risk management (DRM) do not adequately prepare change agents for this challenging task [3] and often fail to develop effective change agents because they focus on theoretical knowledge at the expense of practical, implementation-oriented skills [4].

The Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [5] highlights the importance of comprehensively addressing these phenomena within the DRM framework under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [6]. Among its 17 goals, the report mentions the need for quality education (SDG 4), making cities and communities more sustainable (SDG 11), and an urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts (SDG 13).

Recognizing that education is crucial for empowering individuals and communities to understand and address the challenges posed by climate change, UNESCO promotes education for climate change adaptation as a fundamental tool to raise awareness, encourage behavioral change, and equip future generations with the skills needed to develop sustainable solutions [7]. For example, echoing the recommendations of the 2022 UN Summit on Transforming Education [8], the Alliance for Ecological Education initiative set a target to have 90% of countries include climate change education in their curricula by 2030. In parallel, in 2024, UNESCO developed the Curriculum Guide for Ecology: Teaching and Learning for Climate Action, designed to help countries, schools, and practitioners review their methods and adopt a more active, inclusive, accurate, and equitable approach centered on lifelong learning. This guide envisions a sustainable curriculum that prepares students to address the challenges of climate change by establishing common criteria and learning outcomes for each age group, from age 5 to 18 and beyond [9].

In this regard, it is necessary to explore the role of education systems in driving social change to mitigate climate change (CC) and implement policies that strengthen resilience and facilitate adaptation to environmental challenges, as proclaimed in the 2030 Agenda [10]. Furthermore, the 2015 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction promotes disaster risk reduction (DRR) by integrating education as a fundamental pillar to strengthen resilience and prevent new risks [11], all of which aligns with the concept of “building back better”. In this context, education fosters necessary awareness, knowledge, and behaviors to protect lives, infrastructure, and communities. Therefore, the Sendai Framework emphasizes the importance of education in DRR and highlights the need to integrate this knowledge into education systems [12].

Disasters can be opportunities for social transformation, not just for restoring the previous situation, and they highlight the importance of civil society in empowering vulnerable communities, promoting resilience through participatory approaches [13]. As Brundiers [3] notes, curricular reforms, institutional innovations, and the practical experience of these change agents could be used to design curricula that empower students to identify and capitalize on opportunities for post-disaster sustainability. Linking sustainability education with DRM education could be an additional benefit in the future. In this sense, schools should incorporate prevention, response, and recovery measures that promote collective adaptation and transform these experiences into valuable learning opportunities amid CC. Empowering teachers and students to understand CC in their own contexts helps make societies more sustainable and more resilient to its effects [2,14,15,16,17,18,19].

Education presents an opportunity to fight against CC. A comprehensive and multidisciplinary approach to CC education for sustainable development must include not only relevant knowledge about CC, DRR, environmental and social issues, and sustainable consumption and lifestyles, but also a focus on the environment in which this content is learned to ensure that schools and education systems themselves are resilient, as well as sustainable and environmentally friendly. In this sense, evidence suggests that educational interventions are more successful when they focus on local, tangible, and actionable aspects of sustainable development (SD), CC, and environmental education, particularly those that can be addressed through individual behavior [20].

In addition, schools must incorporate prevention, response, and recovery measures that foster collective adaptation and transform these experiences into valuable learning opportunities. Therefore, education on disasters, sustainability, and CC equips students with the knowledge, skills, and values necessary to adapt to, mitigate, and respond to environmental crises. This involves integrating DRR into curricula, transforming schools into resilient centers [21], and promoting ecological competencies for SD, thereby improving safety and promoting climate action [22,23]. By fostering the skills, values, and capacity for action necessary for sustainable living, education can fulfill its potential as a catalyst for a just, equitable, and climate-resilient future [24].

Given that disasters vary in predictability, controllability, warning duration, magnitude, and impact duration, different types of events can affect vulnerability and response in diverse ways. Furthermore, the impact of natural disasters is not distributed equally among countries. The magnitude of losses depends considerably on the level of development, policies, institutional arrangements, and economic conditions [25]. Education can play a significant role in reducing the negative impacts of extreme weather events, both directly and indirectly. Formal education is considered the primary means by which people acquire knowledge, skills, and competencies that can influence their adaptive capacity [26], although the important role of informal education in making cultural change effective should not be overlooked.

Prentice et al. note [27] that children and young people are vulnerable to the threat of CC; however, its potential impacts, including those on global educational outcomes, remain poorly understood. CC is likely already undermining the educational outcomes of many populations worldwide through multiple direct and indirect pathways. A life-cycle development framework is appropriate for understanding these effects and how climate risks can accumulate over the life cycle. Furthermore, vulnerabilities moderate the relationship between climate stressors and adverse educational outcomes [27].

Empowering children and young people with quality, equitable education is crucial to finding sustainable solutions to CC and ensuring environmental protection for all. However, education, paradoxically, stands out as both an extremely vulnerable sector and a crucial tool for mitigation and adaptation [28]. Empowering school-aged children to understand disaster mitigation is the first step in building a community that is aware of these events. In this way, when a disaster strikes, people no longer experience confusion or panic because they have understood how to reduce risk. By educating school-aged children, it is hoped that they will apply the knowledge they acquire and become agents who foster a culture of sustainability and disaster awareness in their environment, thereby contributing to a more resilient society [29].

Furthermore, it is vital to train educators to address CC and its associated risks. This is a fundamental element in fostering a more resilient society, better prepared to face environmental challenges. Training future teachers on these issues is key, as their work directly impacts the awareness of new generations [30]. To incorporate the dimensions of sustainability, CC, and disaster risks into education, it is important to train educators to engage students in this learning and prepare them for an uncertain future shaped by the risks and human and ecological impacts of CC.

CC must be understood as a complex social and scientific problem characterized by uncertainty and a specific context. This requires educators to engage in inquiry and co-learning with students. Teachers should encourage students to think critically and creatively about approaches to CC mitigation and adaptation, and to develop their capacity to respond with meaningful actions [31]. Furthermore, we must not forget the role of informal education, which, through traditional knowledge and communities’ cultural heritage, can help mitigate the effects of CC and foster more sustainable, resilient communities. For example, the role that cultural beliefs and traditions play in disaster prevention, grounded in traditional knowledge, remains relevant today, especially amid extreme weather events driven by CC [32].

This article explores government proposals and legislative initiatives to incorporate the dimensions of sustainability, CC, and DRR into education. Specifically, we focus on Spain and analyze the link between public policy and education across these dimensions in recent years. To this end, we will undertake a review of the curricular reforms and regulatory frameworks that have guided the integration of these topics into the Spanish education system through Organic Law 3/2020 (LOMLOE) [33] and the Royal Decrees that develop the requirements for Early Childhood, Primary, Secondary, and Upper Secondary Education. The paper also takes into account other regulatory frameworks and action plans that have made progress in incorporating content related to CC, sustainability, and DRM. It considers education and the promotion of a culture that integrates these dimensions among citizens to be of particular importance, as in Law 7/2021 on climate change and the energy transition [34]. Furthermore, it presents the latest regulatory changes implemented following the floods and DANA disaster in Valencia, including the establishment of a mandatory disaster training plan for all students in Spanish educational institutions. Finally, it identifies challenges and opportunities for consolidating a culture oriented towards SD, CC adaptation and mitigation, and DRR.

With the aim of analyzing the relevance of education in sustainability, CC, and DRM in Spain, three questions are proposed:

• Question 1: Have recent legislative initiatives implemented in the country significantly increased the integration of content on sustainability, CC, and DRR into educational curricula?
• Question 2: To what extent do the laws and policies implemented in Spain regarding sustainability, CC, and DRR comply with the requirements and recommendations established by the main international frameworks?
• Question 3: Can it be considered that, in recent years, the incorporation of the dimensions of sustainability, CC, and DRR has become consolidated in Spain?

These questions guide the analysis toward identifying progress, obstacles, and opportunities in the curricular integration of environmental and disaster risk management topics within the Spanish education legal system, as well as the importance given to education in these fields in national policies, plans, and strategies, in line with trends and evidence from international literature.

2. Materials and Methods

This paper presents a qualitative content analysis of legal and public policy documents used in the social sciences. The analysis followed a four-stage inductive approach (see Figure 1) [35,36] based on:

• General review of the documentation: documents from official bodies in Spain (first third of 21st century–present) reviewed, focusing on education, sustainability, CC, DRM. Selection criteria: Current documents; education as a factor in CC adaptation/mitigation; sustainability dimension; and relevance of disaster risk.
• Identification and extraction of units of meaning: systematic identification and extraction of relevant units of meaning from the documents, based on research questions aligned with study objectives.
• Condensation and categorization: condensing extracted units into brief descriptive terms or phrases. Categorizing condensed units by similarities and context to form descriptive categories.
• Generation of explanatory themes: linking and contrasting categorized units of meaning to generate an explanation of the object studied, moving on to theoretical interpretation.

Considering the three research questions and the analytical approach, the following specific categories were used for content analysis:

• Curricular integration: The degree and ways in which content on sustainability, CC, and DRM is incorporated into educational curricula.
• Regulatory framework: compliance with international frameworks.
• Legislative developments: educational changes related to the subject of study.
• Institutional importance and value: priority and relevance that national policies, plans, and strategies assign to education in sustainability, CC, and DRM.
• Consolidation and evolution: level of consolidation of these dimensions and their evolution.

Following this methodology, a total of 12 official documents were analyzed: seven laws, three plans, and two strategies (See

Table 1. Laws, Plans and Strategies in Spain linking education and climate change.

Category	Scope	Instrument	Date	Age Range and Main Contents
Law	Education	LOMLOE (Organic Law 3/2020) [33]	2020	Integration of the 2030 Agenda and sustainability into the curriculum; promotion of education for global citizenship; alignment of key competences with the SDGs; development of competences for regional curriculum autonomy.
	Education	Minimum educational standards in Early Childhood (Royal Decree 95/2022) [37]	2022	Voluntary stage from birth to 6 years. It is divided into two cycles: the first cycle (0–3 years), which is generally paid, and the second cycle (3–6 years), which is free in public and educational centers. First cycle: focused on care and early habits. Second cycle: exploration of the environment, knowledge of living beings, understanding of territorial characteristics, and incorporation of sustainable habits.
	Education	Minimum educational standards in Primary Education (Royal Decree 157/2022) [38]	2022	Compulsory and free stage of six academic years; age range between 6 and 12 years. Explicit inclusion of content on sustainability, climate change, and environmental risks; skills for prevention, mitigation, and adaptation; interdisciplinary approach.
	Education	Minimum educational standards in Secondary Education (ESO) (Royal Decree 217/2022) [39]	2022	Compulsory and free stage of four academic years; age range between 12 and 16 years. Explicit inclusion of content on sustainability, climate change, and environmental risks; skills for prevention, mitigation, and adaptation; interdisciplinary approach.
	Education	Minimum educational standards in High School, (Royal Decree 243/2022) [40]	2022	Post-compulsory and voluntary education of two academic years, which is normally taken between the ages of 16 and 18; it has a pre-university purpose or prepares for higher-level vocational training cycles. Explicit inclusion of content on sustainability, climate change, and environmental risks; skills for prevention, mitigation, and adaptation; interdisciplinary approach.
	Climate Change	Law 7/2021, on climate change and energy transition [34]	2021	Emission reduction goals; promotion of renewable energy and sustainable mobility; mainstreaming in public policies; curriculum review to integrate sustainability and CC; teacher training.
	Civil Protection	Law 17/2015, of the National Civil Protection System [41]	2015 (modified 2025)	It regulates emergency and disaster response, disaster relief management, the coordination of special plans, and the strengthening of self-protection mechanisms; regulates the participation of volunteers and collaborating entities in civil protection.
Plan	Climate Adaptation	National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC) [42]	2021–2030	Education is a key cross-cutting action for fostering a resilient society and integrating climate change into formal curricula and active learning methodologies; it aims to empower citizens, improve risk understanding, and encourage adaptation.
	Sustainability	Environmental Education Plan for Sustainability (PAEAS) [43]	2021–2025	Inclusion and improvement of sustainability education; expanded training offer; priority actions in biodiversity, energy, water, circular economy, environmental health, education, and training.
	Education/Civil Protection	Civil protection emergency training plan for non-university educational centers [44]	2025	Extend the culture of prevention and ensure the training of the educational community in emergency response.
Strategy	Sustainable Development	Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy 2030 (EDS, 2030) [45]	2020–2030	A fair and inclusive country model; education as an engine of transformation; emphasis on skills, critical thinking, and global citizenship; alignment with SDG 4, SDG 11, and SDG 13.
	Civil Protection	National Civil Protection Strategy [46]	2024	Strategic objectives of anticipation, prevention, planning, response, and recovery; mandatory emergency training for the entire educational community.

Source: own elaboration based on the revision of sources.

). In addition to consulting official Spanish government documents related to our research topic, we also consulted official websites of international organizations such as the UN, UNESCO, UNDRR, and the EU. Concerning academic literature, we reviewed articles and scientific papers available in bibliographic databases and academic publication repositories, including Google Scholar and Scopus. The keywords used for the search were: Spain; Sustainability; Climate change; Disasters; Education; Legislation. Based on this search, we narrowed the results to 39 publications whose findings are considered relevant to our research.

3. Results

3.1. Analysis of Spanish Educational Legislation on Sustainability, Climate Change, and Disaster Risk

3.1.1. The Education Act (LOMLOE)

The latest Spanish Education Act, known as LOMLOE [33], approved at the end of 2020, establishes the 2030 Agenda as the primary basis for defining the new educational curriculum, integrating education for sustainability as a core element. In Spain, until the approval of LOMLOE, no educational law had included the concept of SD. It is after the approval of this Act that education for sustainability has taken on a primary role in the school curriculum [47]. LOMLOE includes innovative aspects of Education for SD and Education linked to Global Citizenship, conceiving educational centers as dynamic environments where Education for Sustainability permeates learning and fosters stewardship and care for the environment. This establishes that educational authorities, in coordination with local institutions and organizations, will promote the sustainability of schools, their relationship with the natural environment, and their adaptation to the consequences of climate CC. However, the LOMLOE does not explicitly refer to DRR. The Law addresses environmental risks but does not link them to disaster risk [48]. Some authors, such as González and Lozano [49], argue that the LOMLOE curriculum proposal is not as innovative as one might expect and contains both positive and negative aspects, raising doubts about its real effectiveness. For example, authors such as Suárez and Eugenio [50] or de Rivas et al. [51] maintain that sustainability is limited and heavily focused on the environment.

The Law adopts a series of approaches to transform education in Spain and address current sustainability challenges. One of its fundamental pillars is the active defense of children’s rights, recognizing the best interests of the child and placing them among the system’s guiding principles. This principle ensures that all educational decisions are geared toward protecting and promoting the well-being of young people, fostering their participation, and supporting their holistic development [52].

The Law recognizes the importance of education for SD and global citizenship, going beyond the mere transmission of content: it implies that educational centers become active spaces for awareness, reflection and action in the face of contemporary environmental and social challenges, seeking that learning about sustainability, and CC permeates all areas of the curriculum and fosters a critical and responsible awareness in new generations.

Coll and Martín [53] comment, the LOMLOE specifies the principles of the Spanish education system and identifies the key competences that all students must acquire at the end of basic education, based on the Spanish adaptation of the key competences, in accordance with the Recommendation of the Council of the European Union [54], the key factors of curriculum change in the 21st century, according to UNESCO [55], and the SDGs of the 2030 Agenda.

We must also highlight the promotion of continuous improvement in schools and the personalization of learning. The Law encourages each school to adapt its methodologies and resources to meet the specific needs of its students, thereby facilitating more flexible and effective teaching. This helps individuals develop their full potential in a stimulating environment, where learning becomes a meaningful experience tailored to each person’s context.

Furthermore, LOMLOE implies a greater development of the educational competencies of the Autonomous Communities [56]. We must remember that the Spanish State is divided into 17 autonomous communities and 2 autonomous cities. This decentralized territorial organization grants the autonomous communities broad political, legislative, and administrative autonomy, which is detailed in their respective statutes of autonomy. In this regard, regional curriculum development is carried out through decrees and orders issued by each autonomous community, which adapt to the minimum national standards [57]. These regional regulations establish specific objectives, competencies, core knowledge, and assessment criteria for Early Childhood Education, Primary Education, Secondary Education, and High School, tailoring the curriculum to the context of each autonomous community.

The Role of Teachers in the Education Act (LOMLOE)

Several studies recognize the importance of integrating sustainability into initial teacher training [58,59]. In fact, as early as 2009, at the UNESCO World Conference on Education for Sustainable Development, the need to incorporate education for sustainability into teacher training [60]. The LOMLOE highlights teachers’ role in students’ academic success, emphasizing their fundamental contribution to achieving it. Title III of the Law is dedicated to teachers, their roles across educational levels, the recognition, support, and evaluation of teachers, and the characteristics and professional profiles of teachers at different stages and modalities of the education system [61].

In this regard, in accordance with the LOMLOE, teacher training on climate change has become increasingly important. However, future teachers acknowledge that the prior training they received during their university studies was insufficient [62].

3.1.2. Minimum Standards for Early Childhood Education: Royal Decree 95/2022

As Ramón [63] notes, the inclusion of SD concepts in curricula should begin at all educational levels, including early childhood education, in both formal and non-formal settings. The aim is to raise awareness from an early age to prevent behaviors that could lead to the misuse of limited natural resources. In most European countries, early childhood education has been primarily linked to the private sector, given its voluntary and non-compulsory nature, and Spain is no exception. As Torres and González [64] point out, early childhood education has undergone significant changes, transforming its structure, objectives, and purpose to respond to economic and social demands and the evolving needs of children.

The current Spanish regulatory framework governing Early Childhood Education is Royal Decree 95/2022 [37]. In Spain, Early Childhood Education is voluntary and is organized into two cycles up to age 6, divided into two cycles focused on comprehensive development: the first cycle (0–3 years), focused on care and early habits, and the second cycle (3–6 years), free of charge and focused on schooling and preparation for primary education, prioritizing emotional development, body expression, the acquisition of healthy habits, language and communication, as well as the first rules of social interaction.

Morote and Olcina mention climate change should be explained from the basic education levels to raise awareness of the role of human beings as both a cause and a recipient of the current process of global warming [65]. In this regard, the Early Childhood Education stage also fosters exploration of the environment, knowledge of living things, and understanding of territorial characteristics, as they are adopting and incorporating SD habits into their daily routines (point three of the specific competencies of Area 2, Discovery and Exploration of the Environment, in the second cycle) [37]. This approach helps students recognize potential adverse phenomena in their environment by drawing on their own experiences and paying attention to how human actions affect the physical environment, thereby fostering environmental awareness and an understanding of vulnerability to certain risks.

3.1.3. Minimum Curricula in Primary Education: Royal Decree 157/2022

Primary Education in Spain establishes compulsory education for children aged six to twelve and integrates the SDGs into the curriculum through Royal Decree 157/2022 [38]. Primary education promotes responsible consumption and SD, fostering social awareness of CC, evaluating alternatives to curb it and achieve the SDGs, identifying eco-social causes and problems, and critically and argumentatively justifying the ethical duty to protect and care for nature [66]. These are particularly connected to Civic Competence and Knowledge of the Natural, Social, and Cultural Environment [67]. In the Royal Decree, the area of “Knowledge of the Natural, Social, and Cultural Environment” encompasses various disciplines and offers a comprehensive, holistic view of the world [68]. The Royal Decree introduces the causes and consequences of CC, its impact on Earth’s landscapes, and mitigation and adaptation [66]. We must highlight, as Herrera notes, that CC appears in almost 20% of the content of the primary school curriculum in the core subjects of Natural Sciences and Social Sciences [69].

3.1.4. Minimum Curricular Requirements in Secondary School: Royal Decree 217/2022

Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) for students aged 12 to 16 in Spain is regulated by Royal Decree 217/2022 [39]. This Royal Decree organizes the curriculum by subjects and areas, geared towards developing cognitive skills such as critical thinking, autonomy, responsibility, and learning to learn. Through interdisciplinary work and the cultivation of systemic thinking, the aim is to foster a basic understanding of the interdependence, interconnection, and ecodependence that determine the interaction between our ways of life and the social and natural environment [66].

Meaningful, reflective, and collaborative learning is promoted, with special attention to student diversity. Natural risks associated with CC are primarily addressed in Geography, History, Biology, and Geology, where natural phenomena, the physical environment, and the interaction between society and its surroundings are studied. They can also be addressed across the curriculum in Civic and Ethical Values Education, fostering social awareness, prevention, and resilience in risk situations [70].

3.1.5. Minimum Curriculum Requirements in High School: Royal Decree 243/2022

The minimum curriculum requirements for High School studies are regulated by Royal Decree 243/2022 [40]. This is a two-year post-compulsory stage (ages 16 to 18) focused on preparing students for university or higher vocational training. It offers four pathways: Science and Technology, Humanities and Social Sciences, Arts, and General Studies, with common and specific subjects depending on the chosen pathway. Common subjects include fostering responsible and committed attitudes towards CC and promoting SD [67].

Natural hazards are studied in subjects such as Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, and Geology and Environmental Sciences. In these subjects, students learn about sustainability, physical factors, climate diversity, human impact, and environmental policies. Regarding DRR, they also develop skills to interpret climate emergencies and risks such as earthquakes, floods, and droughts [40].

In high school, students delve deeper into analyzing the interdependent and eco-dependent relationships between our lifestyles and the natural environment, paying particular attention to the ecological footprint of their daily actions. This approach fosters the development of responsible habits and attitudes that help achieve the SDGs and combat CC. In the field of “Biology, Geology, and Environmental Sciences,” key topics such as ecology, sustainability, and CC are studied, examining the relationships among these phenomena, the carbon cycle, and their causes and consequences for health, the economy, the environment, and society. Furthermore, the strategies and tools available to address CC are analyzed from both mitigation and adaptation perspectives. On the other hand, in “Economics, Entrepreneurship and Business Activity”, students delve into the study of economic science from an integrated ecological perspective, addressing concepts such as SD, CC, and the circular economy, which allows them to understand how economic decisions can significantly influence environmental sustainability and the transformation towards more responsible and planet-friendly production models [66].

3.2. Other Regulations Linked to Climate Change, Sustainable Development, and Disaster Risk Reduction in Spain

3.2.1. Law 7/2021 on Climate Change and Energy Transition

The main legislation on CC and the energy transition in Spain is Law 7/2021, of 20 May [34]. This law sets emissions-reduction targets for 2030, promotes renewable energy and sustainable mobility, and prohibits new fossil-fuel projects. The Law is conceived as a cross-cutting, goal-oriented instrument intended to guide public and private actions towards the decarbonization of the economy and to integrate the climate approach into various policies that affect CC [71].

This law outlines the review of how sustainability is addressed and integrated across the core curriculum of the education system, including the necessary elements for implementing SD education, all of which are subsequently addressed in the LOMLOE. It also aims to promote initiatives that guarantee adequate teacher training in this area.

3.2.2. Law 17/2015 on the National Civil Protection System

Law 17/2015 on the National Civil Protection System [41] establishes a minimum set of rights and duties of citizens in matters of civil protection, as well as principles of action for public authorities in this regard, which are specified in its implementing regulations. In this sense, citizens are not only the recipients of public action aimed at preventing and responding to emergencies but also become the central focus of the civil protection system, with specific rights and duties.

The Law defines training as a coordination mechanism and a key element of the National Civil Protection System, stipulating that all agents involved in civil protection tasks must receive adequate training and that the corresponding systems, methods, and qualifications are harmonized to ensure the interoperability of civil protection agents. Furthermore, the Law promotes the integration of a preventative culture into the educational sphere, encouraging training in self-protection and risk management in schools and establishing prevention education and drills as priorities [72].

3.3. National Action Plans and Strategies

3.3.1. The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan

Spain has developed two major national climate change adaptation frameworks, structured through two plans. The first covered 2006–2020 [73], and the current one covers 2021–2030. This latest National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2021–2030 [42] was approved on 22 September 2020, following an evaluation of the previous plan and a participatory phase involving a wide range of individuals and organizations. The purpose of the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (PNACC) is to reduce the country’s vulnerability and increase its capacity to respond to the threats and impacts of climate change. The PNACC is conceived as a planning tool that seeks to promote coordinated action against the effects of CC in Spain. The PNACC is integrated into a broad range of environmental strategies and regulations, including the Long-Term Strategy for a Modern, Competitive, and Climate-Neutral Economy by 2050 [74].

The PNACC includes 81 lines of action and is developed according to five guiding principles:

• Social and territorial equity for a just future;
• Science, knowledge, and society at the service of adaptation;
• Transversality and integration in public management;
• Attention to undesired effects;
• Coordinated, transparent, and effective action.

The Plan identifies education and the education system as key elements that generate the skills, habits, and lifestyles that foster adaptation and resilience to CC. Within the lines of action, 18 areas of work are defined, of which 17 are dedicated to education and society. In this area, the aim is to promote access to information, awareness, and effective communication about the impacts and risks of climate change, as well as ways to avoid or limit them; strengthen capacity to address risks within the formal education system, with special attention to technical and vocational training; identify particularly vulnerable groups and communities and foster their resilience through social and community training processes; promote resilient and climate-adapted lifestyles; prevent job losses associated with CC impacts and improve employability and employment opportunities linked to adaptation; promote training and skills development for new jobs arising from these needs; and facilitate public participation in the study of CC and its effects, and in the development of appropriate responses to them.

3.3.2. The Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainability 2021–2025

Due to the climate and environmental crisis and the impacts derived from it and its foreseeable increase, the Ministry for Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challenge implemented the Environmental Education Action Plan for Sustainability 2021–2025 (PAEAS) in 2021 [43], with the objective of promoting a cultural change that allows for an adequate response, in a coordinated, participatory and with institutional and social co-responsibility, to the socio-environmental challenges, establishing through this Plan the strategic lines of environmental education in Spain. Its core principles align with LOMLOE’s emphasis on sustainability. The PAEAS sets, as one of its specific objectives, the inclusion and enhancement of sustainability education in the school curriculum, as well as the increase in the availability of training opportunities in this area [15]. The Plan includes 141 proposals for priority actions in 10 strategic sectors, the result of an expert participation process:

• Biodiversity and Natural Heritage: Conservation and Environmental Education;
• Climate Change: Mitigation, adaptation, and awareness;
• Energy: Transition to renewable energy and energy efficiency;
• Water: Sustainable management and resource conservation;
• Circular Economy and Waste: Reduction and recycling;
• Territory and Urban Planning: Urban sustainability and planning;
• Mobility and Transport: Sustainable mobility and emissions reduction;
• Agri-food: Local and organic consumption;
• Education and Training: Environmental literacy;
• Environmental Health: The link between the environment and well-being.

The PAEAS is implemented through annual work programs. These include air quality plans, awareness campaigns, and environmental education initiatives. PAEAS also included an interim report. During the period 2021–2023, the organizations promoting PAEAS carried out a total of 98 actions, of which 92 were completed or are permanent, and 6 are in progress or have been initiated [75].

3.3.3. The 2030 Sustainable Development Strategy

In June 2018, the Spanish Government approved the Action Plan for the Implementation of the 2030 Agenda: Towards a Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy [76]. This programmatic document, geared towards action, serves as a transition plan between the start of the Agenda’s implementation and the formulation of a long-term Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy. It thus took the first step towards policy guidance in defining the national strategy for achieving the 2030 Agenda [77]. The Spanish Sustainable Development Strategy 2030 [45] seeks a just and inclusive model for the country, positioning education, aligned with SDG 4, as an essential driver of social and environmental transformation. The ESD proposes an education with an emphasis on sustainability and skills development, fostering critical thinking and global citizenship, as key to achieving the other SDGs of the 2030 Agenda.

Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) aims to equip citizens with the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes necessary to lead healthier, more sustainable lives, integrating ESD as a central pillar. In line with SDG 4, it seeks to guarantee inclusive, equitable, and quality education for all students, promoting respect for human rights, gender equality, and appreciation of cultural diversity. In this regard, the education sector is expected to work together on implementing the ESD framework by 2030, driving the transformation of educational institutions into safe and sustainable environments. Furthermore, the Strategy fosters the empowerment and active participation of children, young people, and students in building more peaceful and sustainable societies, emphasizing the need to increase education funding and promote digital transformation to achieve these goals [78].

4. New Lines of Action in Education on Disasters Following the Floods of 2024 in Valencia

The Spanish Mediterranean coast is particularly vulnerable due to a complex natural environment, rainfall that can reach torrential intensities, and a high density of human activity [79]. On 29 October 2024, an isolated depression at high levels (a phenomenon known as DANA in Spanish) occurred in eastern Spain, affecting, to varying degrees, especially the autonomous communities of Valencia, Castilla-La Mancha, Andalusia, and Murcia, causing an environmental catastrophe [80] with the death of 238 people and damages valued in billions of euros, with particular intensity in the Valencia area [81].

4.1. The National Civil Protection Strategy

The consequences of the storm and floods in Valencia have highlighted shortcomings in education related to CC and DRR [81]. To address these shortcomings, the National Security Council agreed on a new National Civil Protection Strategy [46] on 15 October 2024, which was ratified on 16 December 2024 [82] and includes strategic objectives and lines of action in this area. The strategy focuses on the following objectives:

• Anticipation: determining risks in a territory based on vulnerability conditions and potential threats.
• Prevention: promoting measures and actions to avoid or mitigate the potential adverse impacts of emergency risks and threats.
• Planning: contributing to the preparedness of all public administrations to respond to emergencies in a planned manner, establishing preparedness measures in advance to act effectively.
• Response: promoting immediate response actions to emergencies related to public emergency intervention and assistance services, in accordance with regulations.
• Recovery: promoting effective recovery measures after a disaster, considering the principles of collaboration, cooperation, coordination, inter-territorial solidarity, subsidiarity, efficiency, participation, inclusion, and universal accessibility for people with disabilities.

4.2. Civil Protection Emergency Training Plan for Non-University Educational Centers

On 11 November 2024, the Government of Spain announced a disaster-preparedness training plan mandatory for all students in Spanish educational centers, and ratified it in the Resolution of 20 October 2025 [44]. The plan was jointly designed by the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior, with participation from personnel from emergency response and assistance services, as well as collaborators and volunteers from Civil Protection.

According to the plan, students from preschool through secondary school will receive training on safety regulations, prevention, risk identification, psychological support for victims, emergency alert systems, and tools for detecting misinformation during disasters. Those responsible for delivering the training program in non-university centers will be members of the emergency intervention and assistance services of the regional and local civil protection agencies, as well as volunteers from the national civil protection system and teachers from educational centers.

The National School of Civil Protection, either directly or in collaboration with the Regional Schools of Civil Protection, will be responsible for providing the necessary prior training to teachers. It is expected that, after completing the training, teachers will obtain continuing professional development credits that will be included in their curriculum vitae.

The aim is to prepare the entire population, including children and young people, to face natural hazards, adverse weather events and disasters, which are becoming increasingly frequent in Spain. The Government has established a minimum curriculum that the Autonomous Communities and educational institutions can expand upon to address relevant contingencies based on the area’s natural, social, or economic characteristics.

This minimum curriculum is divided into five sections:

• Knowledge of emergency alert systems.
• Helping students and teachers identify risk situations in their environment.
• Prevention and self-protection measures to mitigate the effects of floods, coastal hazards, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions, fires, industrial accidents, and chemical, nuclear, and hazardous transport incidents.
• Psychological support and resources available for victims.
• Information to combat misinformation in emergency situations.

The fight against disinformation, already included in the LOMLOE, will be mandatory for all students from the age of 12. It will not be a single emergency subject; rather, several sessions or workshops will be offered throughout the school year. The draft mentions at least two hours in early childhood and primary education and at least four hours in other educational levels, which can be distributed throughout the school year. Practical activities also include open days, visits to emergency coordination centers, and participation in drills.

Furthermore, Law 17/2015, on the National Civil Protection System, is amended by modifying Section 5 of Article 10 to promote and implement public awareness and preventive information programs [41].

In addition, a new Section 6 has been added to Article 10, establishing that the Ministry of Education, together with the Ministry of the Interior and the autonomous communities, will develop a mandatory civil protection emergency training plan for all non-university educational centers. This plan aims to promote prevention and ensure that the entire educational community knows how to respond in emergencies. The training will include basic content for preventing and responding to emergencies caused by both natural phenomena and human activity. Moreover, administrations and educational centers may expand this training to adapt it to the specific risks associated with each center’s environment [41].

5. Discussion

Since the 1960s, significant progress has been made in CC mitigation, SD, and DRR thanks to the participation of international organizations linked to the UN, such as UNESCO, UNICEF, and UNDRR, as well as civil society and the scientific community. This progress is reflected in international milestones, which have driven policies and educational measures in these areas [83]. Education on environmental, social, and economic sustainability, with consideration of the consequences of CC, has become a global priority in recent decades [84]. As Borde et al. note [85], CC education was conceived in the early 1990s as a global and indispensable strategy for achieving an ecological transition, especially after the Paris Climate Agreement [86]. This can be seen in the adoption of the 2030 Agenda and its SDGs, among which SDG 4, related to quality education, and SDG 13, linked to climate action, stand out, and in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, in which, as Olcina and Morote [30] mention, it promotes the integration of natural risks in education to strengthen resilience.

In this regard, it is observed that actions in CC, social and environmental responsibility, and DRR education are being implemented across different regions and countries to train citizens to understand environmental risks, prevent disasters, and promote sustainable societies by incorporating content on CC, sustainability, and DRR into formal education. Among other developments, we can observe that Finland has integrated sustainability and CC into its national basic curriculum since 2014, incorporating them as cross-curricular themes across all subjects [41]. Japan includes DRR education in the school curriculum, in a cross-curricular manner and within an integrated period, allowing teachers to organize activities together with other stakeholders involved in DRR [87]. In California, USA, educational plans have been implemented that include specific modules on CC and DRM, adapted to the local context, and that promote collaboration between educational institutions and protection agencies [88].

The European Union (EU) is a key player in climate policy, influencing policymaking at both the level of its Member States and internationally, through organizations such as the United Nations. The EU has played a significant role in developing CC legislation and in promoting and engaging with Member States. This legal and political capacity of the EU to enact national climate change legislation stems from the fact that its Member States share sovereignty in formulating environmental policies [89]. The EU’s value and commitment to making Europe the first climate-neutral continent by 2050 are undeniable. In this regard, the European Commission has adopted the GreenComp framework, a common European benchmark for sustainability competencies, which structures learning around four key areas: channeling complexity, fostering sustainability, acting for sustainability, and adopting sustainability values [90,91], reinforcing the role of schools as agents of change and promoters of practices aligned with the SDGs and current challenges.

Therefore, the recent Spanish government’s initiative aligns to some extend with the principles already established in the 2005 Hyogo Framework [92], the Sendai Framework [11], and researchers such as Campbell and Yates [93], who argue that students can be important disseminators of information to the entire community regarding DRR and response. To achieve this, it is necessary to develop a legal and institutional framework that engages stakeholders at all levels, integrates local risk education into the curriculum, sets objectives for disaster risk education, defines the age range of students and the time dedicated to this instruction, and provides adequate teacher training.

In this sense we observe that Spanish education laws have progressively incorporated international recommendations on sustainable education began with the General Law on the Organization of the Education System (LOGSE) of 1990 [94], which emphasized respect for and protection of the environment; the Law on the Quality of Education (LOCE) of 2002 [95], which reinforced environmental awareness; and the Education Law (LOE) of 2006 [96], which explicitly introduced sustainability, including the ecological transition, social justice, and education for sustainability in a cross-cutting manner [48], establishing as one of its principles and objectives the promotion of education for the ecological transition with criteria of social justice and highlighting its contribution to the dimensions of sustainability [97].

One of the latest initiatives proposed by the Spanish government is the implementation of a State Pact against the Climate Emergency. The first draft, presented in September 2025 [98], established 10 priority commitments to strengthen prevention, adaptation, and response to the effects of climate change. These commitments included reinforcing prevention and adaptation to fires, floods, droughts, and heat waves through improved forest and water management; protecting the population and workers; supporting rural areas and the agroforestry sectors; creating specific funds; and strengthening emergency services, along with greater institutional coordination, preventative education, and accelerating the ecological transition toward climate neutrality. In December 2025, the government presented a second draft with 15 areas of action, up from 10 in the original document [99]. The new proposal broadens the focus to issues such as biodiversity, coastal systems, and disinformation. The Pact has not yet been approved as a final agreement with full parliamentary consensus; rather, it is an initiative in the proposal, debate, and development phase.

6. Conclusions

Following a review of legislation, action plans, and strategies in Spain, we interpret this as evidence of significant progress in sustainability, CC, and DRR, and their integration in education.

Regarding education laws, we observe that LOMLOE incorporates the 2030 Agenda and makes sustainability a central focus of the curriculum, marking a shift from previous education laws. As Navarro and Gavari point LOMLOE marks a turning point by integrating education for sustainability as a core element of the curriculum and a key component at all educational levels [100]. Furthermore, the Royal Decrees regulating the minimum teaching standards in Early Childhood, Primary, Secondary, and Upper Secondary Education explicitly include content on SD and CC, as well as on raising awareness of environmental risks. In Early Childhood Education, exploration of the environment and the adoption of sustainable habits are encouraged from the earliest years. In Primary and Secondary Education, the interdisciplinary approach and connections to the SDGs and CC are reinforced. As Herrera points out, in Primary Education, the CC appears in approximately 20% of the content of the core subjects, Natural and Social Sciences [69]. In High School, we observe a deeper analysis of the interdependence between lifestyles and the environment, as well as the ecological footprint of everyday actions and the interpretation of climate emergencies and natural hazards.

Additionally, we observe that Spain has launched numerous initiatives to increase public awareness of CC and its associated risks. In this regard, in line with other researchers such as Gavari et al. [48] and Morote et al. [70], significant progress has been made in non-educational CC and risk legislation, including specific educational measures aligned with education laws. As Lazo et al. [101] note, the recently introduced CC legislation is cross-cutting and highly versatile, paving the way for the full inclusion of environmental and climate sustainability in both formal and non-formal education.

However, several academic studies indicate that, while educational reforms represent progress, there are limitations in curricular innovation, criticisms of the prevailing environmental approach, and insufficient cross-curricular integration of risk management. As García [102] points out, both the Royal Decrees for Primary and Secondary Education address CC in the school curriculum, incorporating this content into subjects; despite this, it is still treated as an environmental problem rather than as a phenomenon that affects all dimensions of our lives. Authors such as González and Lozano [49], Suárez and Eugenio [50], and de Rivas et al. [51] highlight that the curricular proposal, although positive, maintains certain deficiencies in the depth and scope of sustainability and risk management, which pose challenges for the current Spanish education system. Other researchers, such as Morote et al. [16] and Grau [103], maintain that a truly integrated and coherent proposal is not observed. For his part, Heras [104] considers that the Spanish education system still does not adequately convey to society the unique characteristics that define the climate problem.

Following the devastating floods in Valencia, several initiatives have been launched to raise public awareness of natural hazards. This is further strengthened by the introduction of mandatory disaster management training, which underscores the role of DRR in the education system and promotes a preventive culture linked to civil protection. Olcina and Morote [79] note that these actions address the urgent need to prepare the population, especially young people, and society at large for emergencies. The Mandatory Training Plan aims to increase risk literacy and foster a culture of self-protection. It is a significant project that integrates social equity, educational reform, and forward planning.

Based on these initiatives and official sources, we conclude that public policies in Spain are consolidating a culture oriented towards SD, adaptation to and mitigation of CC, and DRR, in which education is considered essential to promote action and social awareness, although, in line with other researchers, we consider it is necessary to continue advancing policies that make it effective.

Limitations

This article has certain limitations that should be considered. The article is a qualitative content analysis of legal documents, plans, and strategies implemented by the Spanish government, without empirical validation (e.g., quantitative data, field research, or case studies). Furthermore, it does not consider intermediate and advanced vocational training, nor does it review how the subject areas of study are addressed in university education. Another issue is that it omits regional adaptations in their respective regulations and action plans. Given the above, we believe there are several lines of research worth exploring.

A possible line of research would be to examine how the dimensions of sustainability, CC, and DRR are integrated into intermediate and advanced vocational training and also in university education. Another possible line of research would be to compare the legislative frameworks implemented in the Autonomous Communities to assess the degree of improvement in the dimensions of sustainability, CC, and DRR relative to the minimum learning standards established in the LOMLOE and the corresponding royal decrees on formal education.

The implementation of the disaster preparedness training plan has only just begun, so we must await the results of incorporating basic content for emergency prevention and response. Furthermore, while efforts are underway to train teachers in these areas, we will see to what extent broader training will be necessary. Therefore, one aspect we consider particularly relevant for future analysis is evaluating the outcomes of DRR training following the 2024 Valencia floods, for teachers, professionals, and volunteers responsible for its implementation.

Finally, we believe a possible line of research is to examine the behavior of Spanish society to determine whether a cultural shift has occurred toward combating CC, promoting sustainability, and reducing disaster risk. This could be assessed using methods such as surveys or indicators of social and individual behavior within Spanish society.