Five Important Seeds in Traditional Medicine, and Pharmacological Benefits

Abstract

Knowledge about the pharmacological benefits of different seeds is an important factor for the cultivation and application of medicinal herbs and plants. The seeds of medicinal plants are stores of valuable and active secondary metabolites that have been commercially and economically beneficial and helpful for medicine and pharmacy. The major parameter of reproduction and the preservation of plants are seeds, which have a functional role in the distribution and establishment of plants in different regions. Five important seeds that have tremendous medicinal and pharmacological benefits are anise, basil, borage, cilantro, and chamomile. Anise seed is used as a spice, either whole or ground, and its essential oil and extract are also obtained from the seeds. Basil seeds have a long history of usage in Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine, and they are a good source of minerals, are high in fiber (including pectin), and are rich is flavonoids and other polyphenols. Borage seed oil is used for skin disorders, such as seborrheic dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, and neurodermatitis. Coriander is an annual herb that is part of the Apiaceae family, and the seeds are rich in iron, zinc, copper, and essential minerals, which can decrease bad cholesterol and improve good cholesterol in the body. Chamomile can be considered for the treatment of insomnia, hemorrhoids, anxiety, and diarrhea, and it may help with wound healing and skin irritation. Keyword searches for Anise, Seed, Basil, Borage, Cilantro, Chamomile, Seed biology, Traditional medicinal science, and seed anatomy were performed using Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google scholar. The aim of this article review is to survey the pharmacological and health benefits of the seeds of the five aforementioned important medicinal plants.

1. Introduction

Aromatic and medicinal plants are gaining more importance because of their potential application in the food, pharmaceutical, and fragrance industries [1,2,3,4,5]. Medicinal and aromatic plants have been used in cosmetics, perfumery, pharmaceuticals, and food flavoring since ancient times due to the presence of essential oils and different components in them [6,7]. Anise, or aniseed, is an aromatic medicinal plant of the Apiaceae family [8], and its ethanol extract and essential oil are responsible for its efficacy [9]. It mainly contains trans-anethole and anethole, followed by estragole, sterols, scopoletin, coumarins, limonene, and pinens [10,11,12]. Its seeds are cultivated commercially and are used for flavoring [13], and its aromatic seeds have been used in medicine as a mild expectorant [14,15].

Basil is cultivated for its essential oil because it is used as odorizer and flavorant in perfumery and the food industry as well as in the pharmaceutical industry [16,17,18]. In traditional medicine, it has been used in folk medicine to treat coughs, headaches, diarrhea, warts, constipation, and kidney dysfunction, as well as to promote digestion and to stimulate appetite [19,20] due to the fact that it contains secondary metabolites, such as tannins, anthocyanins, phenols, flavonoids, and steroids [21,22]. Its oil, linalool, and estragole have indicated nematocidal activities and acaricidal activities [23]. It has marvelous biological characteristics, such as anti-angiogenic, anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-allergic, anti-depressant, and anti-microbial ones [24,25,26,27,28,29].

Borage is an annual herb that is cultivated for culinary uses and for medicinal application, even though it is commercially planted for borage seed oil [30,31]. Borage seed oil is rich in the gamma-linolenic acid, which is utilized as a food or dietary supplement [32,33]. Other than seed oil, it contains a lot of fatty acids, such as linoleic acid, oleic acid, stearic acid, palmitic acid, erucic acid, and eicosenoic acid [34,35]. It is consumed for the treatment of different diseases, such as eczema, multiple sclerosis, heart diseases, diabetes, and arthritis [36,37,38].

One of the most important and popular herbs in the Apiaceae family is coriander [39,40], which is known for its antioxidant activity due to its natural phenolic-rich components [41,42]. Coriander plants are utilized as a pain reliever and a sedative, and the principle ingredient of coriander essential oil is linalool [43]. Coriander plants have different pharmacological effects, such as anti-cancerous, hypoglycemic, stomachic, carminative, spasmolytic, anti-mutagenic, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antifungal activity, which makes it an important medicinal plant in the pharmaceutical industry [44,45,46,47,48,49].

Chamomile is widely cultivated for its flowers and its essential oils, and it is considered one of the oldest and most extensively used plants in traditional herbal medicine in different parts of the world [50,51,52]. It has been used to treat different kinds of complaints, such as rheumatic pain, muscle spams, influenza, convulsions, anxiety, hemorrhoids, mucosal ulceration, skin inflammation, and gastrointestinal disorders [53,54,55,56,57,58].

A systematic review was conducted by searching electronic databases, including 550 articles. Relevant articles were selected on the basis of the nutritional, chemical, agronomical, and functional properties of anise, basil, borage, cilantro, and chamomile seeds. The databases used were the Web of Science, EBSCO, and Scopus, among others. The keywords used in this study were anise, basil, borage, cilantro, chamomile, seed production, seed biology, anatomy and germination, seed extract, and pharmaceutical benefits. This work aims to provide an overview of the medicinal effects and the pharmacological benefits of the seeds of the five above mentioned medicinal plants from recently published articles and studies.

2. Anise (Pimpinella anisum L.)

Pimpinella anisum L. belongs to the Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family, and it is an annual herb and a grassy plant with small green to yellow seeds and white flowers that grows in Iran, Turkey, Egypt, India, and many other warm parts of the world [59,60]. The major constituents of anise are anethole, eugenol, estragole, pseudoisoeugenol, anisaldehyde, methylchavicol, terpene hydrocarbons, coumarins, estrols, scopoletin, umberlliferon, polyacetylenes, and polyenes [61,62,63,64,65]. Anise seeds are small, measuring about 3.5 mm in length, and they are teardrop-shaped seeds that are most often used dried. Fresh Anise seeds have a sage green coloring that transitions into a grey-brown hue as they dry, and the seeds are slightly hairy, with five distinct dorsal ridges running lengthwise along the surface. The seeds are brown in colour, and they have a characteristic sweet smell and a pleasant aromatic taste. The molecular formula of anise methanolic extract comprises anethole (C₁₀H₁₂O), Eicosane (C₂₀H₄₂), Varidiflorene (C₁₅H₂₄), Docosane (C₂₂H₄₆), Pentadecane (C₁₅H₃₂), Nonadecane (C₁₉H₄₀), Butanoic acid (C₁₅H₂₀O₃), Octacosane (C₂₈H₅₈), Heneicosane (C₂₁H₄₄), Hexadecane (C₂₀H₄₂) and Cyclohexane (C₂₆H₅₀) [66]. It has various therapeutic impacts on several conditions, such as gynaecologic, digestive, neurologic, and respiratory disorders, and also against stored-product insects [67,68,69]. It is predominately grown for its fruit and commercially named “seeds”, which are presently used for flavouring [70,71]. It has been reported that hot water extracts of the seeds have been consumed in folk medicine for their laxative and diuretic effects, their expectorant and anti-spasmodic action, and their capability to ease intestinal colic and flatulence [72]. The methods of hydrodistillation (HD), solvent extraction, steam distillation, press, Ohmic-assisted hydrodistillation (OH), ohmic heating, ultrasound, microwave extraction, and supercritical fluid can be considered as advanced and usual extraction methods [73]. Balbino et al. [74] showed that pressurized liquid extraction can be a useful tool for modulating the content and the composition of bioactive molecules in lipid extracts from Apiaceae seeds. The water extracts of anise seeds showed greater antioxidant capacity than that of ethanol [13]. Lee [75] reported that anisaldehyde, estragole, anethole, and myrcene derived from anise seeds are appropriate as a lead compound in the development of new factors for the selective control of the stored food mite (Tyrophagus putrescentiae). Yazdi et al. [76] found that the inclusion of anise in a diet can be used as an alternative to in-feed antibiotics for broiler diets. In traditional medicine, its seeds are recommended for their central tranquilizing action [77,78]. Iannarelli et al. [63] reported that aniseed essential oil indicated a significant anti-inflammatory impact on both Human Tracheal Epithelial Cells (HTEpC) and Human Bronchial Epithelial Cells (HBEpC) cells together with mucus hypersecretion. The main points about anise seeds are presented in

Table 1. Key points about anise seeds.

Key Points	References
Anise seed consists of fixed oil, volatile oil, mucilage, proteins, and starch.	[60,61,62,63,64,65]
The essential oil of anise seeds consists of eugenol trans-anethole, coumarins, anisaldehyde, estragole, scopoletin, umbelliferone, polyacetylenes, estrolterpene, and methyl chavicol anisaldehyde.	[60,61,62,63,64]
Aniseeds contain 1.5–5% essential oil and are utilized as flavouring and as a carminative, a digestive, and for relief of gastrointestinal spasms.	[64,65,66,67]
Aniseeds have various characteristics, such as antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antioxidant, and insecticidal effects.	[68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75]
Aniseeds can cause muscle relaxant and gastric protection as well as influence the digestive system.	[76,77,78]
In diabetic patients, aniseeds have hypolipidemic and hypoglycemic effects and decrease lipid peroxidation.	[76,77,78]
Aniseed also has significant impacts on dysmenorrhea and menopausal hot flashes in women.	[76,77,78]
The most notable compounds of aniseed essential oil were trans-anethole, γ-himachalene, estragole, p-anisaldehyde, and methyl chavicol.	[75,76,77,78]

. The most important health benefits of anise seeds are shown in Figure 1.

3. Basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)

Basil seed is rich in fiber, nutrients, and health benefits [79,80,81,82,83]. The seeds are high in dietary fiber and thus have significant potential as a functional ingredients, and the mucilage obtained from basil seeds has been extensively studied and has notable emulsifying, thickening, foaming, viscosity, stabilizing, and gelling properties [84,85,86,87,88]. Basil seeds are not normally utilized as a food, despite the literature indicating that its consumption provides both nutritional value and significant health advantages, such as antimicrobial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and anticancer ones [89,90]. Basil has also been extensively applied in traditional medicine in the treatment of headaches, constipation, coughs, warts, diarrhea, kidney problems, and worms [91]. Carbohydrate (60.8%), lipid (13.8%), and crude protein (13.7%) are the principle constituents of basil seed, and the residue is mainly ash and moisture. Its black seeds are oval; the length, width, and thickness are 3.22 ± 0.33 mm, 1.84 ± 0.24 mm, and 1.37 ± 0.15 mm, respectively; and the main composition of the basil seed includes carbohydrate, protein, and lipid [92,93,94]. The physical characteristics of basil seeds in Iran are 1.82 mm width, 3.11 mm length, 1.34 mm thickness [95], 1.84 mm width, 3.22 mm length, and 1.37 mm thickness [96]. The seeds from Serbia have 1.30–1.54 mm width, 2.31–2.64 mm length, and 0.99–1.14 mm thickness, and the seeds from India have 1.06 mm width and 1.97 mm length [84]. The basil plant seeds are small (2–3 mm), egg-shaped, elongated, black-colored, and generally applied in most desserts, and the seeds also contain several traditional characteristics of medicinal importance that are useful in the treatment of various medical ailments, such as ulcers, diarrhea, piles, dyspepsia, etc. [97]. Basil plant seeds can be categorized into different types, such as the large leaf robust type, the tall slender type, the compact types, the dwarf types (which are small and short leafed), the purple types, purpurascens, and the citriodorum types.

Basil seed is oval in shape and black in color, with mean dimensions of 3.11 ± 0.29 mm (length), 1.34 ± 0.19 mm (height), and 1.82 ± 0.26 mm (width) [98]. The mineral components of basil seeds are Fe (2.27 mg/100 g), Mn (1.01 mg/100 g), Zn (1.58 mg/100 g), Mg (31.55 mg/100 g), Na, K, and Ca [99]. Basil seed gum is the mucopolysaccharide obtained from basil seed, and it shows a fibrillar structure connected with many globules and suggests different practical usages, including as an emulsifier, a stabilizer, a fat replacer, and a thickener [100,101,102]. Basil seed gum is a plant-derived hydrocolloid, and its high molecular weight (Mw) (2320 kDa) imparts high pseudoplastic and viscous behaviour [100]. It is identified as an anionic heteropolysaccharide, including glucomannan, and is composed of two main fractions with different molecular weights and monosaccharides units: PERBSG fraction (6000 kDa) and SUPER-BSG (1045 kDa) [103,104]. Basil seed gum has demonstrated a high flexible chain, which makes it liable to change structure by adding sugar solutions, and it has indicated random coil-to-rod conformation and no molecular entanglement at the various conditions [105,106]. Basil seed mucilage demonstrates significant chemical and physical properties, such as high water absorbing capacity as well as stabilizing and emulsifying properties [107,108,109]. The Ocimum basilicum mucilage (OBM) contains carbohydrates such as D-Galactose, D-Glucose, D-Mannose, glucomannan, L-Rhamnose, pectins, and hemicellulose materials, as well as a small amount of non-polysaccharides, such as fat, minerals, and protein [110,111,112].

The amino acid components of basil seeds are aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, glycine, arginine, alanine, histidine, threonine, tyrosine, proline, valine, leucine, cysteic acid, isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, methionine sulfone, and tryptophan [113]. Basil seeds have a specific content of gum (generally ranging from 10% to 20% on the basis of the treating methods) with surprising functional characteristics, and this is comparable with some other commercial gums, such as xanthan [114]. Calcined basil seed has indicated the adsorption capability of herbicides [115]. Rectal administration of a combination of basil seeds and gum arabic after the induction of colitis showed both anti-inflammatory and antioxidant impacts, and it accelerated the healing of the colon in experimental colitis, which was increased by acetic acid [116]. Peptides from its seeds also revealed antioxidant, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity using in vitro models [117]. The hydrocolloids from the seeds can be utilized in food formulations because of their availability, their affordable price, and their functionality [118,119]. Generally, basil seeds have an appropriate antioxidant potential that is higher than other seeds, such as red seeds or sesame, and they can be utilized to develop new natural antioxidants or be included as ingredients to prevent oxidative deterioration in foods [120,121]. Basil seeds are traditionally applied as a natural treatment for indigestion, ulcers, sore throats, diarrhea, and kidney disorders [121,122], and they have been used as diuretics, aphrodisiacs, antipyretics, and for anti-dysenteric reasons [121]. The key points about basil seeds are presented in

Table 2. Key points about basil seeds.

Key Points	References
It is commonly called sweet basil or basil, and it belongs to the Lamiaceae family.	[79,80,81,82,83]
Its name comes from the Greek word Basileus, meaning Royal or king, and it is usually known as the king of the herbs because of its different applications in the cosmetic, medicine, food, and pharmaceutical industries.	[79,80,81,82,83]
Its seeds are utilized to enrich fruit-based beverages for functional and visual goals.	[79,80,81,82,83]
Basil seeds are high in dietary fiber, which has made it unique as a functional ingredient.	[83,84,85,86,87]
Basil seeds not only have high nutritious value but have also been used due to their high and notable health benefits, including anticancer, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activities.	[87,88,89,90]
The importance of the physical and morphological characterization of the seeds is a result of the relationship between the size and shape of the seeds; the design of tools for agricultural activities, such as production and storage; and its potency for food application.	[90,91,92,93,94,95]
The area in which the seeds are planted and their origin are both important factors that influence seed changes.	[83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90]
The correlation with moisture may influence the size of the seeds.	[85,86,87,88,89,90]
The bioactive components and the nutritional composition of the seeds can vary depending on environmental conditions, agronomic management, altitude, geographical location, origin of the seeds, soil properties, and the degree of water absorption.	[85,86,87,88,89,90]
Basil seeds are an important source of carbohydrates, which vary between 43.9 and 63.8 g/100 g of seed.	[83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90]
The seeds contain non-starchy polysaccharides in the form of lignin, hemicellulose, and cellulose.	[90,91,92,93,94,95]
The basil seeds contain mucilage, and the content is about 17–20%.	[90,91,92,93,94,95]
The basil seed gum is also applied for different purposes, such as a disintegrant, a good source of fiber, a suspending agent, a pharmaceutical excipient, an anti-diabetic agent, and a notable biodegradable edible film.	[90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100]
The main non-essential amino acids of basil seeds are aspartic and glutamic acid.	[95,96,97,98,99,100]
All essential amino acids except tryptophan and S-containing types can be found in basil seeds.	[90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100]
The amino acid composition of basil seeds is aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, glycine, histidine, arginine, threonine, tyrosine, valine, lysine, alanine, proline, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, cysteic acid, methionine sulfone, and tryptophan.	[100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110]
Basil seeds have a fat content that varies between 9.7% and 33.0%.	[100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110]
The most important fatty acid composition of basil seeds is palmitic acid, stearic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, and linolenic acid.	[105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115]
The main macronutrient minerals that are needed in higher amounts include phosphorus, calcium, sulfur, potassium, magnesium, sodium, and chloride.	[105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115]
The major micronutrients that are needed are iron, zinc, cooper, manganese, silicon, iodine, fluoride, and chromium.	[109,110,111,112,113,114,115]
Basil seeds contain high antioxidant potential, and the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of basil seeds are determined by DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate) and Folin–Ciocalteu methods.	[110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121]
The antimicrobial activity of basil seed oil is also reported.	[110,111,112,113,114,115]
In traditional medicine, basil seeds are applied as a natural remedy for the treatment of ulcers, indigestion, kidney disorders, sore throats, and diarrhea.	[112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121]
The basil extracts also demonstrated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiarrheal, antiulcer, and chemo-preventive impacts.	[113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121]

.

4. Borage (Borago officinalis L.)

Borage is one of the most important medicinal and nutritional plants due to the occurrence of high levels of γ-linolenic acid (GLA) in its seed oil [123,124,125,126]. It is a notable garden herb of the plant family Boraginaceae, and it is freshly consumed in salads [127,128]. In addition, its oil consists of more than 60% of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and the high PUFA amount of borage oil makes it susceptible to oxidation [126]. Its seed oil is a highly emollient oil that hydrates, protects, and nourishes the skin [126,127,128]. The seed is 4–5 mm in length, and the borage seedling produces a pair of rounded, wavy-edged cotyledons, and the first true leaves are hairy with a rougher texture. It is a dark coloured seed, varying from brown to black, with a coarse and rough texture. The plant is a culinary and traditional medicinal herb native to the Mediterranean area, which is self-incompatible, and, therefore, pollinating insects are needed to transfer pollen between different plants, with at least two honey bee hives per hectare required for this process [129]. Due to its potential market for gamma linolenic acid (GLA), it has been the subject of increasing agricultural interest and different fatty acids obtained from the seeds [130]. In addition to GLA, borage seeds contain stearic, erucic, linoleic, palmitic, oleic, α-linolenic, and erucic acids [131,132,133,134]. GLA is an omega-6 essential fatty acid that has been considered as having many positive therapeutic impacts, such as the treatment of diabetes, arthritis, heart disease, atopic eczema, cyclic mastalgia, and multiple sclerosis [135,136]. Oil from plant seeds mostly includes triglycerides consisting of C16–C20 fatty acids, and triglycerides are sufficiently soluble in SC-CO₂, but they are much more so in n-alkane, such as propane [137]. Borage seed oil is mostly obtained by organic solvent extraction (mainly hexane), extrusion procedures such as cold pressing and hot expelling, or a mixture of extrusion processes and solvent extraction [138]. Borage extracts have shown remarkable antioxidant properties, and these impacts are related to their phenolic components [139]. HPLC analysis allowed the recognition of nine phenolic acids during seed maturation with the activity of rosmarinic, sinapic, and syringic acids [140]. The key points about borage seeds are presented in

Table 3. Key points about borage seeds.

Key Points	References
Borage is an oilseed with a high gamma-linolenic acid content.	[123,124,125,126]
The major producers of borage seeds are the USA, Canada, England, and Chile.	[123,124,125,126]
Borage seed is one of the most notable sensitive agronomic seeds, as significant deterioration happens after only one year of storage.	[123,124,125,126]
The main reasons for membrane disruption are increased free fatty acid levels and free radical productivity by lipid per oxidation.	[126,127,128,129,130]
The seeds also contain palmitic, linoleic, stearic, α-linolenic, oleic, erucic, and erucic acids	[130,131,132,133,134,135]
Gamma-linolenic acid showed the potential to relieve the symptoms and signs of various chronic inflammatory diseases, such as atopic dermatitis and rheumatoid arthritis.	[135,136,137,138,139,140]
Gamma-linolenic acid can also be appropriate in respiratory, gastrointestinal, and cardiovascular disorders.	[135,136,137,138,139,140]
Borage seeds also have different volatile compounds with antimicrobial activities.	[125,126,127,128,129,130]
Methods and units of measurement of antioxidant activity of borage seeds are Folin–Ciocalteu (mg polyphenols·g−1 seeds d.w.), FRAP (μmol Fe II·g−1 seeds d.w.), DPPH (DPPH rem, %), and AE (dm3·[μmol s−1]).	[131,132,133,134,135,136,137,138]
The average oil content of the borage seed is 30–40% by weight.	[135,136,137,138,139,140]
Borage seed oil is used to treat various skin disorders, such as seborrheic dermatitis, atopic dermatitis, and neurodermatitis.	[134,135,136,137,138,139,140]

.

5. Coriander (Cilantro) (Coriandrum sativum L.)

Coriander is an annual herb that belongs to family Apiaceae, and the coriander plant yields two primary products that are applied for flavoring purposes: mature seeds as the spice coriander and immature fresh green herb [141,142,143]. All parts of the plant are edible, with dried seeds and fresh leaves usually used as culinary ingredients [144,145]. It is probably one of the first species used by humanity [146,147,148]. Principle constituents in coriander are aldehydes (82.6%) followed by alcohols (16.6%). Coriander is also an appropriate source of essential fatty acids [149,150]. α-linolenic acid and Linoleic acid are found in high concentration, and both are essential fatty acids and are precursors of omega-6 fatty acids and omega-3 fatty acids, respectively [151]. The major monoterpenes of coriander are linalool followed by camphor, geraniol, and limonene [152]. The essential oils found in coriander leaves and seeds have become increasingly popular as functional foods and as substitute sources of natural preservative factors. Its essential oil has been utilized in the food industry for its flavor and aroma, or to mask displeasing odors of certain foods due to its distinctive pungent, aldehydic, and fatty aroma [153]. The major aromatic compounds are aliphatic aldehydes (mainly C₁₀–C₁₆ aldehydes), with a fetid-like aroma in the fresh herb oil [154]. The oil composition of the seeds can be influenced by several parameters, such as genetic structure, plant and soil macronutrient and micronutrient contents, climatic conditions, and agronomical practices [155,156,157].

The seeds of coriander are ovate globular, the length of the seed is 3–5 mm, there are many longitudinal ridges on the surface, and, when dried, the seeds are generally brown but may be green, straw-colored, or off white. The seed is usually sold sun dried and is made accessible for both whole and ground coriander, and coriander seeds have a sweet, mild, slight pungent, citrus-like flavor with a hint of sage [158]. There are three main extraction processes used to obtain vegetable oil (VO) and essential oil (EO) from coriander seeds, which are organic solvent extraction (Soxhlet), steam distillation, and supercritical fluid extraction [159]. The most cited compounds are (E)-2-decenal, decanal, (E)-2-dodecenal, (E)-2-tridecenal, dodecanal, and tetradecenal [160,161]. Lasram et al. [162] reported that seed essential oils of coriander proved to be a potential natural source of aflatoxin and an antifungal inhibition agent against Aspergillus flavus. Seeds also have antimicrobial potential against various pathogen bacteria and yeasts, and both lipophilic and hydrophilic extracts of coriander have indicated significant antioxidant activities in in vivo and in vitro studies [163]. Mixing fractions of eucalytpus, coriander, dill, and cilantro resulted in synergistic, additive, or antagonistic effects on individual test microorganisms [164]. Chemical characterization of cilantro essential oil can be considered as a potential antifungal, methylglyoxal suppressor, and antiaflatoxigenic [165]. The seeds are largely accountable for the medical application of coriander, and they have been utilized as a drug for indigestion and rheumatism as well as against worms and pain in the joints [166].

The coriander seeds have a satisfying flavour owing to the specific composition of the essential oil [166]. The high content of hydroxycinnamic acids was observed in ethanolic extracts achieved from exhausted coriander seeds with lowest mean particle size, and, consequently, coriander seeds, which have been identified for their rich essential oil content, could be applied for sequential production of polyphenolic-rich extracts with high antioxidant activity [167,168]. The antioxidant activity of coriander seeds is primarily related to high levels of phospholipids, carotenoids, and tocopherols [167,168,169]. Coriander seed essential oil has a significant inhibitory impact on the fungus Candida albicans [169]. The content of the essential oil of the seeds is usually influenced by coriander cultivar, weather conditions, the geographical location of the growth area, and the stage of maturity [170,171,172]. The aqueous extract treatment of coriander seeds increased exploratory activity in the animal models of anxiety, restored monoamines and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA) levels to the respective baseline levels, and reduced excitotoxic levels of glutamate in the hippocampus region [173]. The key points about cilantro seeds are presented in

Table 4. Key points about cilantro seeds.

Key Points	References
Coriander is the seed of an annual small plant, which is commonly referred to as a spice, and which belongs to the Apiaceae family (Umbelliferae).	[141,142,143]
Coriander is also known as Mexican parsley and Chinese parsley.	[141,142,143]
The largest producer of coriander is India.	[141,142,143]
The seeds of coriander are nearly ovate globular and there are several longitudinal ridges on the surface.	[143,144,145]
The length of the seed is 3–5 mm.	[143,144,145]
Coriander seeds have a sweet, mild, slight pungent-like citrus flavor with a hint of sage.	[143,144,145]
Fatty oil and essential oil are two major components of coriander seeds.	[143,144,145]
Coriander can be grown from being transplanted or from seed.	[143,144,145]
The fatty oil content fluctuates between 9.9% and 27.7%, and the essential oil content of dried coriander seeds changes fluctuates between 0.03% and 2.6%.	[141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150]
Linalool is the most important essential oil in the seeds of coriander.	[141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150]
Linalool, which is a terpene alcohol identified in coriander, has an important function in many therapeutic benefits, and it possesses anxiolytic, analgesic, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective effects.	[141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150]
Its essential oil is an important component of detergents, emulsifiers, creams, surfactants, perfumes, and lotions.	[141,142,143,144,145,146,147,148,149,150]
Moisture content is one of principle factors that influences the physical properties of seeds.	[150,151,152,153,154,155,156,157,158,159,160]
The seeds showed the presence of different compounds, such as glucosides, monoterpenoid, monoterpenoid glycosides, and aromatic constituent glycosides, such as norcarotenoid glucoside.	[160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172]
Different methods, including solvent extraction such as water, methanol and n-hexane, hydrodistillation, sonication, and microwave-assisted extraction, are used to extract the chemical components of cilantro.	[163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173]
The extracts and essential oil of coriander seeds contain sedative-hypnotic activity.	[165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173]
In traditional medicine, its seeds were consumed to relieve pain, inflammation, and rheumatoid arthritis.	[166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173]
The seeds have been consumed to relieve different gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhea, flatulence, nausea, and indigestion.	[165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173]
The most important health benefits of coriander are hypolipidemic activity, anti-atherogenic and antioxidant properties, antihypertensive potential, and antiarrhythmic activity.	[160,161,162,163,164,165,166,167,168,169,170,171,172,173]

.

6. Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.)

Chamomile belonging to the Asteraceae family, and also called German chamomile, is a medicinal plant of high economic importance in the world [174,175,176]. It is applied in perfumery, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, aromatherapy, and food and flavor industries [177,178,179,180,181]. Its seeds are one of the few types of seed that need light in order to germinate, so establishing by seed is a delicate process. Chamomile is classified mostly into five chemotypes according to the content of α-bisabolol, bisabolol oxide A and B, chamazulene, and bisabolone oxide in its essential oil [182]. The essential oil of chamomile has showed significant antioxidant, antibiotic, sedative, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic activities [183,184,185,186]. Chamomile could show potent antioxidant activity because of its content of flavanols, isoflavones, flavonoids, anthocyanin, flavones, isocatechins, tannins acid, and coumarin [187,188,189,190]. Chamomile is mainly used as an infusion for anxiolytic and sedative purposes [191,192]. Utilizing chamomile in combination with Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) may be an effective technique for efficacious treatment of lung cancer [193]. It has been reported that extracts of the three essential oils of marjoram, chamomile, and Eucalyptus contain acaricidal activity against Tetranychus urticae [194]. Angelic, methacrylic acid esters, isobutyric, and pinene were the main hydro-distilled essential oil volatiles [195,196,197]. It has been reported that chamomile seed-based salvia substitute was effectual in relieving xerostomia signs [198]. Cicco et al. [199] showed that chamomile essential oils exerted their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity by regulating macrophages and that CD4⁺ T cells mediate immune response. Madadi et al. [200] concluded that 150 mg·L⁻¹ of chamomile shoot extract could be effective as a bioherbicide to sustainably control flixweed in wheat production. Chamomile extract is recommended for further decreasing the clinical traits and ameliorating the quality of life of Chronic Rhinosinusitis (CRS) patients [201]. Temperature, relative humidity, seed moisture content, and the nature of the seeds impact seed longevity during storage, and an increment in temperature as well as moisture can lead to fungal growth, which decreases seed viability [202,203,204,205,206,207,208]. The key points about chamomile seeds are presented in

Table 5. Key points about chamomile seeds.

Key Points	References
Two main and popular kinds of chamomile are German chamomile and Roman chamomile, which belong to the Asteraceae (Compositae) family.	[177,178,179,180,181]
Chamomile contains terpenes, volatile oils, organic acids, coumarins, flavonoids, sterols, and polysaccharides.	[180,181,182,183,184,185]
Chamomile is mainly cultivated by seeds, but keeping seed viability for a long time is a very important factor as well as seed germination.	[180,181,182,183,184,185]
Chamomile has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities.	[175,176,177,178,179,180]
Chamomile has anticancer and neuroprotective activities.	[180,181,182,183,184,185]
Chamomile has anti-diarrheal, antibacterial, and anti-allergic activities.	[185,186,187,188,189,190]
Chamomile is a widely utilized herb in the traditional medicine of China, Rome, Greece, Germany, and the West of Asia.	[190,191,192,193,194,195,196,197,198,199,200]
In traditional medicine, it is used to treat ulcers, wounds, gout, eczema, bruises, skin irritations, canker sores, burns, sciatica, neuralgia, hemorrhoids, rheumatic pain, mastitis, and hemorrhoids.	[190,193,198,199,200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207]
It has been used to treat croup, colic, and fevers in children, and it has also been applied as an emmenagogue and a uterine tonic in women.	[200,201,202,203,204,205,206,207]

.

7. Conclusions

Medicinal plant and herb seeds are seeds that have had a special connection to humankind since the beginning of history. In today’s world, there is worldwide identification of the importance of medicinal and aromatic plants due to their uses in the feed, food, pesticide, and cosmetics industries as well as due to their preventive and curative characteristics, which are indicated by a growing demand for medicinal and aromatic products in the markets. Anise seeds are rich in nutrients and its seeds are particularly rich in iron, and anise seed may help treat depression and reduce its symptoms. Its seeds may also help to prevent stomach ulcers and decrease unfavorable symptoms. Anethole, which is an active component in anise seed, inhibits bacterial growth, and other compounds possess potent antimicrobial properties. Anise seeds can help relieve menopause signs, balance blood sugar levels, and decrease inflammation. The basil seeds are black colored and have an oval shape, and they have been used in traditional medicine, such as antipyretic, antispasmodic, stomachic, diarrhea, as well as the treatment of ulcers, and they are rich in plant compounds, including flavonoids. In traditional medicine, borage is used in herbal medicinal science, while it is harvested as an oil seed commercially. The seeds can decrease arthritis, provide relief from respiratory issues, have tremendous benefits on improving both skin condition and cardiovascular health, are important for treatment of allergies and diseases, and are recommended to help relieve fever with anti-cancer activities. Chamomile plants are a member of the Asteraceae family, and two important common types are German chamomile and Roman chamomile. The terpenoid group, such as derivatives of acetylene and chamazulene, is the main source of antioxidants. This may help with depression and stress, improve digestion, and help to decrease pain and reduce inflammation. Chamomile also possesses strong anti-inflammatory and pain-reducing capabilities and anti-cancer activities, and, in addition, it relieves congestion and promotes skin health. All of the abovementioned seeds of medicinal and aromatic plants, which are also rich in many nutrients, can boast a wide array of health benefits. In future studies, research should create seeds with traits that will succeed in a climate-changed world, as global warming means higher temperatures, which may negatively influence the production of medicinal seeds, and the fact that collaboration breeds excellence is another important factor that should be considered. New technological innovation and opportunities can help with the mission of breeding new appropriate medicinal seed varieties as well as considering the importance of the Agriculture–Sustainability–Nutrition nexus for future food science, including medicinal and aromatic plants.