Macromol, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 11 articles

L-asparaginase (L-ASNase) is a vital enzymatic drug widely used for treating acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and certain lymphomas. However, its clinical application is often limited by a short plasma half-life, pronounced immunogenicity, and systemic toxicities. To address these challenges, we recently developed conjugates of L-ASNase with cationic polymers, enhancing its cytostatic activity by increasing enzyme binding with cancer cells. The present study focuses on the development of liposomal formulations of E. coli L-asparaginase (EcA) and its conjugates with cationic polymers: the natural oligoamine spermine (spm) and a synthetic polyethylenimine–polyethyleneglycol (PEI-PEG) copolymer. This approach aims to improve enzyme encapsulation efficiency and stability within liposomes. Various formulations—including EcA conjugates with polycations incorporated into 100 nm and 400 nm phosphatidylcholine/cardiolipin (PC/CL, 80/20) anionic liposomes—were synthesized as a delivery system of high enzyme load. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy confirmed successful enzyme association with liposomal carriers by identifying characteristic changes in the vibrational bands corresponding to both protein and lipid components. In vitro release studies demonstrated that encapsulating EcA formulations in liposomes more than doubled their half-release time (T_1/2), depending on the formulation. Cytotoxicity assays against Raji lymphoma cells revealed that liposomal formulations, particularly 100 nm EcA-spm liposomes, exhibited markedly superior anti-proliferative activity, reducing cell viability to 4.5%, compared to 35% for free EcA. Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopy (CLSM) provided clear visual and quantitative evidence that enhanced cellular internalization of the enzyme correlates directly with its cytostatic efficacy. Notably, formulations showing higher intracellular uptake produced greater cytotoxic effects, emphasizing that hydrolysis of asparagine inside cancer cells, rather than extracellularly, is critical for therapeutic success. Among all tested formulations, the EcA-spermine liposomal conjugate demonstrated the highest fluorescence intensity within cells providing enhanced cytotoxicity. These results strongly indicate that encapsulating cationically modified L-ASNase in liposomes is a highly promising strategy to improve targeted cellular delivery and prolonged enzymatic activity. This strategy holds significant potential for developing more effective and safer antileukemic therapies. Full article

Single-use plastic cups and packaging materials pose severe environmental challenges due to their persistent nature and harmful impact on ecosystems and wildlife. Simultaneously, the indiscriminate disposal and burning of agricultural and food processing biomass contribute significantly to pollution. Among this biomass, waste generated from corn and fruit processing is produced in substantial quantities and is rich in natural fibres, making it a potential source for developing biodegradable products. This study focuses on the development of biodegradable cups using corn cob powder, mango peel powder, and pineapple peel powder through hot-press compression and moulding technology. The formulation was optimized using response surface methodology, with independent variables, i.e., corn cob (20–40 g), mango peel (30–50 g), and pineapple peel (20–30 g). The responses evaluated including hardness, colour (L* value), and water-holding capacity. The model was fitted using a second-order polynomial equation. Optimum results were achieved with 34 g of corn cob, 40 g of mango peel, and 26 g of pineapple peel powder, yielding a maximum hardness of 2.41 kg, an L* value of 47.03, and a water-holding capacity of 18.25 min. The optimized samples further underwent characterization of physical properties, functional groups, lattice structure, surface morphology, and biodegradability. Colour parameters were recorded as L* = 47.03 ± 0.021, a* = 10.47 ± 0.041, and b* = 24.77 ± 0.032. Textural study revealed a hardness of 2.411 ± 0.063 and a fracturability of 2.635 ± 0.033. The developed biodegradable cup had a semicrystalline nature with a crystallinity index of 44.4%. Soil burial tests confirmed that the developed cups degraded completely within 30 days. These findings highlight the potential of corn and fruit processing waste for developing eco-friendly, biodegradable cups as sustainable alternatives to single-use plastics. Full article

Human adenovirus infections are typically self-limiting but can become life-threatening in pediatric populations and immunocompromised individuals. Despite this clinical importance, efforts to develop antiviral drugs against adenoviruses remain limited. A promising strategy is to target the adenovirus protease (AVP), an enzyme essential for viral maturation and infectivity. Yet, research on AVP has lagged far behind that on other viral proteases. In this work, we aimed to reposition AVP as a viable target for antiviral therapy. We first discuss why AVP research has fallen behind and emphasize the need to redirect attention toward this protease. Building on advances in SARS-CoV-2 drug discovery, we evaluated the potential of repurposing inhibitors of the main protease (M^pro) and papain-like protease (PL^pro) as modulators of AVP. Additionally, we examined the untapped potential of phytochemicals as novel scaffolds. These analyses were supported by original molecular docking studies. Our results revealed that previously reported SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors, such as the M^pro inhibitor ensitrelvir and the PL^pro inhibitor (compound) 19, engage the catalytic site of AVP and may serve as starting scaffolds for inhibitor design. Screening of phytochemicals further identified promising candidates, including apigenin, camptothecin, kaempferol, and piperine. Together, these findings highlight AVP’s druggability and suggest that both repurposed antivirals and natural products provide complementary avenues for inhibitor development. Finally, we provide some recommendations to facilitate efforts in the discovery of novel AVP inhibitors. Full article

Tomato pomace (TP) is a waste product from tomato processing. This study explored its use as a food ingredient by creating an encapsulated TP extract (ETPE). TP was extracted with ethanol using a microwave-assisted method prior to encapsulating with either gum arabic (GA) or maltodextrin (MD) via spray drying. MD was selected for further studies based on its lower moisture content with higher radical scavenging ability, assessed by DPPH assay. Spray drying at 160 °C was chosen due to highest radical scavenging ability (≈14.02%), although lycopene content was not the highest. Application of ETPE in reduced nitrite sausages did not negatively impact the cooking yield, expressible moisture, and textures of samples. The redness and yellowness of sausage were improved significantly (p < 0.05). In addition, a reduction in TBARS from approximately 0.46 to 0.31 mgMDA/kg was found during cold storage for two weeks. In conclusion, the encapsulation of tomato pomace extract can serve as a functional ingredient to produce healthier sausage. Full article

UV radiation is responsible for acute and chronic adverse effects on the skin. In recent years, it has been shown that various phenolic acids, particularly cinnamic acid derivatives, prevent some of these effects. In the present study, the design and synthesis of three esters of ferulic acid, analogues of the octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), one of the most commercially used filters, are presented. The esters were evaluated for their photoprotective activity against UVA and UVB radiation. The ester 3b exhibited an SPF of 9.22 and a λ_c value of 343.9, higher than the values of OMC (SPF value: 8.19, λ_c value: 337.7). The development and optimization of a novel encapsulation process of the synthesized esters in nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and coating of the NLCs with chitosan was also performed. The optimization of the coating processes was performed using a Box–Behnken experimental design. The optimal nanosystems exhibited a size of 117.0 ± 5 nm, enhanced stability in dispersion, and 78% encapsulation efficiency. The nanoparticles were characterized by ATR/FT–IR, TGA, and TEM. Incorporation of the nanoparticle dispersions in a sunscreen formulation increased the SPF factor of the formulation up to 48%. The esters and nanosystems also showed a satisfactory ability to inhibit the peroxidation of linoleic acid (AAPH induced lipid peroxidation assay) (74–91% inhibition). Full article

In this work, the associative behavior of Gum Arabic in aqueous solutions was investigated through dynamic light scattering, nuclear magnetic resonance, and transmission and scanning electron microscopy. It was shown that in small associates, the spherical polysaccharide units have predominant sizes of 2–8 and 9–20 nm. The average hydrodynamic diameter of diffusing structural units, calculated on the basis of NMR experiment, turned out to be close to 20 nm, which corresponds with electron microscopy data. Based on geometric considerations and the composition and supramolecular structure of Gum Arabic, we calculated the parameters of branched chains of Gum Arabic. A possible “crown” model of polysaccharide chain association into spherical blocks is presented. The developed model allowed us to describe the effects observed during the time-extended association of Gum Arabic particles (molecules) in aqueous solutions, leading first to blocks’ swelling, then the appearance of local gelation, and only then to the creation of dense protective layers on the surfaces. It was established that the tendency of amphiphilic Gum Arabic molecules to form complexes both among themselves and with various surfaces and the possibility of forming viscous gel-like layers on the interfaces underly its use in many natural, food, technical, and technological applications, including emulsification. Full article

Additive manufacturing (AM) demands materials that combine precise printability with reliable thermal and mechanical performance. Polyglycerol (PG)-based macromolecular systems offer exceptional tunability through controlled architecture and chemical modification, enabling their use across both light-based and extrusion AM platforms. Strategic enhancements such as chemical functionalization, network formation, and hybrid reinforcement have expanded their capabilities from biomedical to structural applications, delivering improved stability, strength, and functionality. Despite these advances, performance-processing trade-offs and dispersion challenges remain barriers to widespread adoption. This review synthesizes current knowledge on PG-based materials in AM, mapping key structure-property-processing relationships and identifying strategies to advance their development as versatile and sustainable options for next-generation manufacturing. Full article

In an era defined by the imperative for sustainable, high-performance materials, this review examines the development and utility of key ester and ether derivatives from both cellulose and hemicellulose sourced from lignocellulosic biomass, with a special emphasis on waste feedstocks. Our findings indicate that these derivatives exhibit tunable physicochemical properties, enabling their broad use in established industrial sectors while also fueling the emergence of novel technological applications in nanotechnology, controlled delivery, tissue engineering, environmental remediation, electronics, and energy fields. This dual-polysaccharide platform demonstrates that underutilized biomass streams can be repurposed as valuable feedstocks, promoting a circular supply chain and supporting more sustainable solutions, thereby aligning with the goals of eco-friendly innovation in materials science. Future progress will likely depend on integrating green chemistry synthesis routes, optimizing waste-to-product conversion efficiency and scalability, and engineering derivatives for multifunctional performance, thus bridging the gap between commodity-scale use and high-tech material innovation. Full article

The present study focuses on the extraction, characterisation, and functional properties of pectin-like polymers from tomatoes. The results revealed that the highest pectin yield (35.5%) of the dry weight was extracted at pH 1, whilst the lowest yield (25.4%) was extracted at pH 3. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra displayed major peaks at 2900–3300 cm⁻¹ and 900–1100 cm⁻¹, which are typical of carbohydrate polymers. A compositional analysis revealed the presence of six monosaccharides (glucose, arabinose, fucose, galactose, mannose, and galacturonic acid) together with trace amounts of xylose, which are typical of pectin (or pectin-like) structures. This suggests that the pectin-like polymers have galactan and/or arabinan side chains. The emulsifying activities and stabilities were ≥50% and ≥96%, respectively. The pectin-like polymers also demonstrated notable antioxidant activities (70%) when determined using the 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. Full article

The most significant barrier against biopolymers’ commercialization is their sensitivity to external factors and poor material properties. In recent years, significant progress has been made to enhance these materials so that they are able to provide their unique physiological benefits while maintaining acceptable material performance. As these materials have developed, so too has their application in the food and medical industry, which often requires them to undergo sterilization. Sterilization is a process in which all microbial life and spores are removed from the surface and within materials and is a regulatory requirement for some food packaging products and all medical applications. Sterilization is carried out primarily using radiation, chemical, and heat treatment, which are all effective in disrupting cell regulation and causing cell death. These processes are known to induce structural and/or chemical changes in materials as well as potential migratory or leaching effects. This review aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of these sterilization processes and the effects they have on polysaccharides, while established data is discussed that provides insight into their market viability post-sterilization and the importance of further characterization using sterilization. Full article

The rise in antifungal resistance among Candida species has prompted the search for alternative therapies, including plant-derived lectins with antimicrobial properties. This study evaluated the antifungal activity of Microgramma vacciniola frond lectin (MvFL) against clinically relevant Candida species and Nakaseomyces glabratus. MvFL exhibited fungistatic activity, with the lowest minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.625 μg/mL for N. glabratus and 1.25 μg/mL for Candida krusei. The minimal fungicidal concentrations (MFC) were not detected, indicating they are above 80 µg/mL. MvFL significantly reduced N. glabratus proliferation, disrupted lysosomal integrity, and affected mitochondrial membrane potential, indicating interference with key cellular processes. MvFL showed minimal activity against biofilm formation, only reducing Candida tropicalis biofilms at a subinhibitory concentration. Combination assays revealed additive or synergistic effects with fluconazole for C. krusei, C. tropicalis, and notably Candida parapsilosis, while antagonism was observed against Candida albicans and N. glabratus. These findings underscore the species-specific nature of lectin-drug interactions and the importance of evaluating such combinations carefully. Overall, MvFL demonstrates significant antifungal potential, particularly as an adjuvant to existing treatments. Its ability to inhibit growth and disrupt cellular function in yeasts supports the development of plant lectins as novel, safer antifungal agents in response to the growing challenge of antifungal resistance. Full article