Polysaccharides, Volume 7, Issue 3 (September 2026) – 29 articles

Oxalis tuberosa (oca) is an underutilized Andean tuber with potential as an alternative starch source. This study compared native starches isolated from locally recognized yellow, pink, and black oca materials using compositional, structural, morphological, hydration, pasting, and thermal analyses. All starches exhibited B-type crystallinity but differed significantly in their measured characteristics. Black oca starch had the highest amylose content (28.1%), relative crystallinity (35.8%), median granule diameter (22.8 μm), and FTIR 1047/1022 ratio (1.36). Conversely, pink starch showed the highest swelling power at 90 °C (17.5 g g⁻¹), peak viscosity (3900 cP), and gelatinization enthalpy (12.83 J g⁻¹), compared with 10.9 g g⁻¹, 2350 cP, and 7.61 J g⁻¹, respectively, for black starch. The ordering of DSC parameters did not parallel XRD-derived relative crystallinity, indicating that relative crystallinity alone did not explain the thermal behavior. The contrasting functional profiles suggest that pink starch warrants further evaluation for applications requiring high hydration and viscosity development, whereas the lower RVA breakdown of black starch may be advantageous where resistance to viscosity loss during heating and shear is required. These findings demonstrate starch-level variation among the three local oca materials; however, application performance requires formulation-level validation, and broader multi-location and multi-harvest studies are needed to establish the stability of these characteristics. Full article

Antibiotic resistance represents a pressing global health challenge, with polymyxins serving as one of the last lines of defense against multidrug-resistant Gram-negative pathogens. Among them, polymyxin B (PMB) has gained renewed attention; however, its clinical use is limited by systemic toxicity. This study developed porous maize starch microparticles with tunable structure and surface chemistry to modulate PMB loading and release. Porous normal maize starch (NMS) and high-amylose maize starch (HAMS) were prepared by enzymatic treatment and modified by 2,2,6,6-Tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO)-mediated oxidation to introduce anionic carboxyl groups for PMB binding. Structural characterization revealed distinct pore morphology and lamellar organization in NMS- and HAMS-derived microparticles, while oxidation increased surface charge without disrupting granular integrity. TEMPO oxidation substantially enhanced PMB loading, suggesting that electrostatic interactions between PMB and oxidized starch contributed to adsorption. In an enzyme-assisted in vitro release model, oxidized porous starches exhibited biphasic profiles, with an initial rapid release followed by a plateau, indicating heterogeneous PMB binding. Oxidized porous NMS (NMS-P-T) and oxidized porous HAMS (HAMS-P-T) showed more sustained PMB release than non-oxidized particles. PMB-loaded HAMS-P-T maintained prolonged antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli in vitro relative to NMS-based matrices. These findings demonstrate that structural modification and surface-charge influence PMB loading and release behavior in starch microparticles, enabling the design of starch-based antimicrobial peptide delivery systems. Full article

Amidation is widely used to tailor alginate properties, yet different carbodiimide-mediated coupling procedures have been reported without establishing whether the reaction sequence affects the resulting materials. Here, this methodological gap was addressed by modifying sodium alginate with 1,4-butanediamine, 1,6-hexanediamine, and cystamine using two alternative reaction sequences. Both routes produced materials with comparable structural and physicochemical properties, demonstrating that, under the conditions studied, the reaction outcome was not significantly affected by the order of reagent addition. Beyond this methodological finding, the resulting derivatives exhibited a distinctive combination of aqueous processability and water stability: alkaline treatment followed by neutralization yielded homogeneous aqueous systems, whereas subsequent drying produced water-insoluble films. This behavior enables functional additives to be incorporated during aqueous processing while providing stable matrices upon water exposure. To demonstrate the technological relevance of these properties, the materials were evaluated as seed coatings using Vigna radiata as a model system. The 1,6-hexanediamine derivative showed the highest persistence under simulated rainfall without impairing germination, while Zn incorporation demonstrated the ability of the coating to act as a micronutrient carrier. Overall, these findings provide new insights into alginate amidation and establish a versatile route toward water-processable, water-stable functional coatings. Full article

Soybean hulls, an abundant agro-industrial by-product, were valorized as a renewable cellulose source for nanocellulose production. Cellulose isolates were obtained by alkaline treatment followed by bleaching with sodium chlorite (NaClO₂) or hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and subsequently used to produce cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibrils (CNF). Process efficiency and the structural and rheological properties of the resulting nanocelluloses were systematically compared. Sodium chlorite bleaching removed lignin and hemicellulose more effectively than hydrogen peroxide treatment, yielding isolates with higher cellulose content. Consequently, CNC_NaClO2 exhibited greater aspect ratio, higher crystallinity, and improved network-forming ability. Their suspensions showed pronounced viscoelastic and thixotropic behavior (G′ > G″), whereas CNC_H2O2 displayed lower moduli and nearly Newtonian flow. CNF suspensions exhibited dominant elastic behavior and gel-like consistency regardless of bleaching method, although this effect was stronger for CNF_NaClO2 due to the formation of longer, more entangled fibrils. FTIR confirmed the high purity of all nanocelluloses, while negative surface charge ensured colloidal stability. Overall, bleaching chemistry governed nanocellulose morphology and rheological performance, enabling tailored functional properties. By maintaining a constant biomass source and identical nanostructure production conditions while varying exclusively the bleaching agent, this study implements a controlled-variable design that rigorously isolates the effect of bleaching treatment. This systematic comparative framework provides methodological robustness rarely achieved in previous studies, where differences in raw materials or processing conditions often confound interpretation. Full article

The influence of chitosan (CS) molecular weight on the interfacial architecture of Ti₃C₂T_x MXene (MX)/chitosan composites (CS/MX) was investigated using complementary spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. Two commercial chitosans with distinct molecular weights and degrees of deacetylation (DD) were evaluated, CS-1 (91 kDa, 73.05% DD) and CS-2 (153 kDa, 69.52% DD). Ti₃C₂T_x MXene was synthesized by selective etching of Ti₃AlC₂ and characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), attenuated total reflectance Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), and Raman spectroscopy. XPS and Raman analyses provided evidence for successful MXene formation through a 45.4% reduction in surface aluminum content, a substantial increase in fluorine-containing surface terminations, and the emergence of the characteristic A₁g(Ti,C) Raman mode at ~200 cm⁻¹. Composite membranes containing different MXene loadings (MX-25, MX-50, and MX-75) were prepared by vacuum-assisted filtration and characterized. Morphological and spectroscopic analyses revealed that the lower-molecular-weight chitosan promoted more effective intercalation between MXene layers, resulting in expanded accordion-like structures and greater surface accessibility. In contrast, the higher-molecular-weight chitosan formed a thicker polymer coating that partially encapsulated the MXene sheets. ATR-FTIR, Raman, and XPS results demonstrated that CS-MX composite formation was governed by non-covalent interactions, primarily electrostatic attraction between protonated chitosan –NH₃⁺ groups and negatively charged MXene surface terminations, reinforced by hydrogen bonding. These findings demonstrate that chitosan molecular weight is a key design parameter governing the interfacial architecture and surface accessibility of Ti₃C₂T_x-based composites. Full article

Medicinal and edible homologous plant polysaccharides (MEHPs) and edible and medicinal mushroom polysaccharides (EMMPs) have attracted increasing attention due to their favorable safety profiles and diverse biological activities. However, existing reviews have mainly focused on individual extraction approaches or specific biological functions, lacking an integrated perspective that connects extraction strategies, structural characteristics, modification techniques, and industrial applications. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of MEHPs and EMMPs by systematically summarizing conventional and advanced extraction technologies, including ultrasound-, microwave-, and enzyme-assisted extraction, alongside deep eutectic solvent, supercritical fluid, and emerging physically assisted methods. Particular emphasis is placed on extraction mechanisms, kinetic modeling, structural preservation, and artificial intelligence-assisted process optimization. Furthermore, recent advances in multi-technique structural characterization, chemical modification strategies, structure–activity relationships, and applications in functional foods, prebiotics, drug delivery, and health-related fields are discussed. Finally, this review highlights key challenges limiting industrial translation, including raw material variability, insufficient higher-order structural characterization, unclear structure–activity relationships, limited clinical evidence, and regulatory barriers. Future perspectives integrating intelligent manufacturing, sustainable processing, and advanced computational approaches are proposed to facilitate the high-value and sustainable development of MEHPs and EMMPs. Full article

In this study, alginate hydrogels (A) cross-linked with a mixture of calcium and europium ions (Ca+Eu)A were developed for the first time as potential carriers for the targeted delivery and sustained release of drugs to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract. Comparative studies were conducted to investigate the effect of the cross-linking agent (Ca²⁺, Eu³⁺, or their mixture) on the physicochemical properties of alginate hydrogels and the release kinetics of metronidazole in media simulating different gastrointestinal environments. Rheological analysis demonstrated that (Ca+Eu)A hydrogels form mechanically robust, highly cross-linked networks. The hydrogels exhibited negligible swelling in an acidic medium (swelling ratio, SR ≈ 1–1.5 g/g); however, in PBS, calcium alginate (CaA) hydrogels swelled 7–8 times more (SR ≈ 42.5 g/g) than hydrogels cross-linked with Eu³⁺ ions or a Ca²⁺/Eu³⁺ mixture (SR = 5–8 g/g). Metronidazole was released 1.5–2 times faster from calcium-cross-linked hydrogels than from hydrogels cross-linked with Eu³⁺ ions or the mixed Ca²⁺/Eu³⁺ system, whereas (Ca+Eu)A hydrogels exhibited a more sustained and uniform release profile. These results demonstrate that the drug release kinetics can be tuned by adjusting the Ca²⁺/Eu³⁺ ratio during alginate cross-linking. Consequently, such hydrogels represent a promising platform for the targeted delivery and controlled release of therapeutic agents, particularly antibiotics, to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract. Full article

Fish processing by-products represent an abundant source of valuable biomolecules that can be valorized through sustainable extraction approaches. In this work, cod backbone hydrolysates obtained by subcritical water hydrolysis were incorporated into chitosan-based films for potential food packaging applications. The hydrolysis residue, rich in minerals, particularly hydroxyapatite (HAp residue), was also incorporated into the films to maximize the utilization of all hydrolysis-derived fractions. The effects of hydrolysate and HAp residue incorporation on the properties of the films were evaluated. The hydrolysate incorporation significantly improved the tensile strength of the films (from 11.56 to 24.39 MPa) and reduced water vapor permeability (from 4.93 to 2.89 (×10⁻¹¹) mol.m.m⁻².s⁻¹.Pa⁻¹), suggesting the formation of a denser and cohesive polymer network. However, the films also exhibited increased swelling and solubility (22–29% and 231–561%, respectively). When adding HAp residue, the films showed lower visible light transmittance and higher opacity, demonstrating improved light barrier properties. The addition of HAp residue also reduced swelling capacity but increased water vapor permeability and decreased tensile strength, suggesting the formation of a more heterogeneous film structure. Overall, the results demonstrate that cod backbone hydrolysates can be an alternative additive to chitosan films to tailor their functional properties for food packaging applications. The incorporation of hydroxyapatite-rich residues contributes to the full valorization of fish processing by-products, supporting the development of sustainable and biodegradable functional materials within a circular economy approach. Full article

The selection of appropriate materials is a critical step in designing an ideal wound dressing. One of the primary objectives of an ideal wound dressing is the prevention of bacterial infections. In this work bovine gelatine (BGE)–chitosan (CS) wound dressing films supplemented with propolis (PE) which is a well-known anti-bacterial agent were prepared by using solvent casting technique. The structures of the wound dressing films were characterized by FTIR and optical microscopy. Also, physical properties of the films such as thickness, mass, water vapor transmission rate (WVTR), water absorption capacity, water content and dressing pH were determined. The water content of films incorporating propolis was found to range from 18.8% to 23%. The water absorption capacity of these films varied between 137% and 646%, while their WVTR was observed to be between 1228.12 and 1593.75 g/m²·day. Additionally, the pH values of the prepared films ranged from 5.86 to 7.34, aligning with the typical pH range of human skin. Furthermore, the antibacterial potential of the BGE-CS-PE films was preliminarily assessed using the agar disc diffusion method against Gram-positive (S. aureus, B. subtilis) and Gram-negative (S. Typhi, E. coli) microorganisms. The observed inhibition zones suggested the potential contribution of propolis incorporation to the antibacterial properties of the films. The combined physical properties and preliminary antibacterial observations of the prepared films indicate their potential for wound dressing applications. Full article

Water-based drilling fluid systems are gaining popularity for their environmental friendliness and low cost. These fluids are highly sensitive to products used to modify fluid properties and control fluid loss. Traditional additives like carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) work well but come with environmental issues and high costs and alternatives from agricultural sources are being sought. The potential of using acetylated yam peel starch (AYPS) and acetylated plantain peel starch (APPS) as substitutes for CMC in water-based drilling mud formulation under ambient and simulated downhole conditions of 27 °C and 150 °C, respectively, was investigated. The peels of yams and plantain, starchy foods, were chemically modified through acetylation and added to the drilling mud formulation at proportions of 0.2–1.0 g. FTIR confirmed the success of the modification by the presence of characteristic bands of carbonyl (C=O) absorption at 1730–1750 cm⁻¹ and by the increase in C–O bands after the modification, which means that acetyl groups were successfully incorporated. The highest mud density recorded was 9.16 kg/m³ (ppg) with 1.0 g of additives, and the pH values ranged from 8.10 to 9.50, which is good for drilling operations. The plastic viscosity was found to be 4–7 cP at 27 °C and 3–6 cP at 150 °C for AYPS and APPS, respectively, which were lower than the CMC value but still retained viscosity at high temperature. The yield point values for the samples were 2–5 lb/100 ft² at 27 °C and 1–6 lb/100 ft² at 150 °C, which were slightly better for AYPS. Thermal aging did not significantly affect gel strength, which increased upon exposure to high-temperature conditions, especially at high additive concentrations, indicating that the rheological properties were preserved. Filtrate losses were 12–16.8 mL for AYPS and 12.5–17.2 mL for APPS under low-pressure, low-temperature conditions, which are similar to CMC (11–16 mL). APPS was the most effective filtrate-loss control of the modified starch systems under the HPHT conditions. Rheological modeling showed that shear-thinning behavior is predominant, and the Herschel–Bulkley and Casson models provided the best fits. In general, the acetylated yam and plantain peel starches have shown promising properties as alternatives for CMC for enhancing rheological properties and controlling fluid loss in water-based drilling fluids. Full article

The escalating volume of agricultural waste presents not only a significant environmental challenge but also a substantial opportunity for resource recovery within a circular bioeconomy. This study investigates the feasibility of extracting high-quality cellulose from two underutilized agricultural residues: flower stems and tomato stems. Raw materials were subjected to a multi-stage chemical pulping process involving alkaline treatment, acid treatment, and hydrogen peroxide bleaching in order to remove lignin, hemicellulose, and other impurities. The resulting cellulose samples were comprehensively characterized for their yield, purity (α-cellulose content), degree of polymerization (DP), chemical structure (FT-IR), crystallinity (XRD), and inorganic elemental composition. The results demonstrate that both feedstocks can yield cellulose with an α-cellulose content exceeding 91% and a DP greater than 600, meeting the stringent quality requirements for dissolving-grade pulp intended for such applications as textiles, composite additives and others products. Flower stems showed a higher pulping yield (26.8%) compared to tomato stems (13.7%), highlighting their greater potential. This work validates agricultural residues, particularly flower stems, as a viable and sustainable alternative to traditional wood sources for cellulose production, offering a pathway to mitigate waste and add value to agricultural supply chains. Full article

Cherry tomatoes are highly susceptible to Salmonella contamination during pre- and post-harvest handling, leading to foodborne illness outbreaks and significant economic losses. Edible coatings incorporating natural antimicrobials offer a promising alternative to conventional chemical treatments for enhancing food safety while maintaining produce quality. This study developed and evaluated a pectin-based edible coating enriched with zinc nanohydroxide-thymol nanohybrids (ZnNH-T) for controlling Salmonella contamination and extending shelf-life of cherry tomatoes. ZnNH-T nanohybrids were synthesized via precipitation, followed by thymol intercalation, and characterized by SEM. Four coating formulations were prepared: pectin alone (P), pectin-thymol (PT), pectin-ZnNH (PNH), and pectin-ZnNH-T (PNHT). Antibacterial activity of the four coatings was first screened in vitro by disc diffusion against six S. enterica serovars; three serovars (Typhimurium, Enteritidis, and Montevideo) showing a statistically significant, coating-dependent inhibition response were selected for the postharvest assay. Cherry tomatoes were coated and dip-inoculated with three Salmonella serotypes (Typhimurium, Enteritidis, and Montevideo) at approximately 10⁵ CFU/mL and stored at 25 °C for 12 days. Antimicrobial efficacy, antioxidant activity (ABTS assay), and physicochemical quality parameters (weight loss, color, pH, and total soluble solids) were evaluated. Zinc nanohydroxides were successfully synthesized, as observed in SEM morphology. ABTS radical scavenging activity of filmogenic solutions was highest for PT (92.4%) and moderate for PNHT (65.9%), while P and PNH showed minimal activity (20.1% and 17.8%, respectively). PNHT coating achieved an approximately 2-log CFU/g reduction in Salmonella populations compared to uncoated controls over 12 days of storage, demonstrating sustained antimicrobial efficacy. Coated tomatoes exhibited significantly reduced weight loss (8% for PNHT vs. 13% for control), better color retention, lycopene content, maintained firmness, and stable pH and TSS values compared to uncoated controls. The pectin-ZnNH-T coating system represents a novel multifunctional approach for enhancing cherry tomato safety and quality. The use of thymol from the layered hydroxide structure, combined with zinc ion antimicrobial effects, provides sustained pathogen reduction while maintaining desirable physicochemical properties. This natural, biodegradable coating technology has potential for commercial application in fresh produce preservation. Full article

Pullulan, a natural microbial polysaccharide composed of repeating maltotriose units, is widely explored as a candidate for advanced cell culture configurations, tissue engineering (TE), and regenerative medicine (RM). Due to its excellent biocompatibility, lack of immunogenicity, and structural flexibility, it serves as a versatile base material. Pristine pullulan exhibits high water solubility and lacks intrinsic signals for cell attachment and proliferation. However, the presence of nine reactive hydroxyl groups per repeating maltotriose unit enables extensive chemical functionalization to address these limitations. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of multi-functional design strategies used to tailor pullulan into distinct structural forms, such as hydrogels, porous scaffolds, electrospun fibrous membranes, thin films, 3D-printed scaffolds, and self-assembling nanosystems. Polymer blending, chemical modification, and crosslinking strategies are discussed in relation to scaffold microstructure, pore size, degradation rate, and mechanical properties. In addition, these structural and physicochemical properties are correlated with biological performance, including cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Pullulan-based materials are particularly suited for applications requiring extensive chemical tunability, such as injectable hydrogels, bioinks, and multifunctional delivery systems. However, their intrinsic bioinertness and limited mechanical strength generally require combination with complementary components to achieve effective cell adhesion and structural stability. Finally, current processing limitations and future strategies are discussed for translating pullulan-based systems into clinical applications. Full article

Croscarmellose sodium (CCS) is a crosslinked cellulose-based superdisintegrant, widely utilized to enhance the disintegration and dissolution behavior of drugs from pharmaceutical solid dosage forms. In the present study, CCS was synthesized through controlled crosslinking of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) by one-step synthesis and optimized using Response Surface Methodology (RSM) based on the Box–Behnken Design (BBD). The effects of four independent variables, namely isopropyl alcohol (IPA) concentration (70–100% v/v), reaction time (2–4 h), reaction temperature (50–70 °C), and concentration of crosslinking agent (CLA) (glycolic acid used as the CLA) (10–20% w/w of CMC weight), on swelling index (SI) and water retention capacity (WRC) of synthesized CCS were systematically evaluated. A total of 29 experimental runs, each representing a unique combination of reaction conditions generated by a three-level Box–Behnken Design (BBD) using Design-Expert^® software, were conducted to synthesize CCS samples. SI and WRC of each synthesized CCS sample were subsequently measured and used to develop statistically validated predictive models and identify the optimal synthesis conditions. The successful formation of croscarmellose sodium was critically confirmed by Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) demonstrated that the developed models were statistically significant, with good predictive capability for both swelling index and water retention responses. A quadratic model adequately described the swelling index (R² = 0.9041, adjusted R² = 0.8083, p < 0.0001), whereas a linear model was selected for WRC (R² = 0.6112, adjusted R² = 0.5463, p < 0.0001). Reaction time and CLA concentration exhibited substantial influence on the functional properties of the synthesized CCS compared to other factors. The optimized synthesis conditions were identified as 93.23% IPA concentration, 4 h reaction time, 70 °C reaction temperature, and 10% CLA concentration. Under these conditions, the predicted swelling index and water retention capacity were 7.529 mL/g and 443.85%, respectively. Response surface analysis further revealed significant interaction effects among the synthesis variables, particularly between IPA concentration and reaction time. The findings of this study demonstrate that RSM-BBD is an effective statistical approach for optimizing cellulose-based superdisintegrant synthesis and provide valuable insights into the structure–property relationships governing the hydration and swelling behavior of CCS. The optimized CCS synthesized in this research thus shows potential for application as a high-performance pharmaceutical superdisintegrant in immediate-release tablet formulations. Full article

This work is focused on understanding how the properties of chitosan-g-poly(N,N-diethylacrylamide-co-N,N-dimethylacrylamide) and chitosan-g-poly(N,N-diethylacrylamide-co-N-ethylacrylamide) copolymers are affected by varying their compositions. Poly(N,N-diethylacrylamide), PDEAm, is a thermosensitive polymer with a reversible coil-to-globule transition in aqueous solution near the human body temperature. The transition temperature can be tuned by varying the amount of two more hydrophilic units: N-ethylacrylamide (NEAm) or N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMAm). While the former can participate in hydrogen bonding as a proton donor or acceptor, the latter is only an acceptor and a very-well-known hydrophilic unit with no phase transition. The gelation process was followed by rheological measurements, showing the general features of the chemical gelation and the formation of a strong gel. A reaction autoacceleration was observed, which is interpreted by the high viscosity of the reaction mixture due to the presence of chitosan, although a greater effect was found in NEAm copolymers due to the higher hydrogen-bonding capacity of NEAm. A relationship was found between the compositions of both copolymers, the strength of the hydrogels, and the calculated pore size. The pore sizes range from 32 to 18 nm. Thermogravimetric analysis of the hydrogels showed the typical decomposition stages of polyacrylamides. Neither the temperature of the maximum decomposition rate nor the weight loss associated displayed a clear trend with the copolymer composition. There was an increment in the equilibrium swelling values with the content of NEAm units (from 16 to almost 28 g water/g polymer), but the copolymers with DMAm remained unaffected (swelling values around 23 g water/g polymer). The hydrogen-bonding interaction affected the gelation process and swelling behavior of the hydrogels. This can be explained by the greater ability of NEAm to form hydrogen bonds compared to DMAm. Full article

Sulfated polysaccharides (SPs) from green seaweed species have been scarcely studied for the development of novel pharmaceutical, cosmetic or nutraceutical products. The present study aimed to investigate the physico-chemical characteristics of the sulfated polysaccharidic fractions isolated from Cladophora vagabunda green seaweed and to evaluate their anti-aging properties in vitro. SPF1 and SPF2 fractions were separated from the purified polysaccharidic extract by size exclusion chromatography. The content of neutral carbohydrates, uronic acids and sulfate was assessed, while Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis confirmed the presence of a functional group characteristic for sulfated polysaccharides. Capillary zone electrophoresis indicated the monosaccharides profile and the presence of bioactive fucose and uronic acids. The two fractions differed in sulfate content (22.59% and 29.44%). SF2 showed stronger collagenase inhibition (95.69%), whereas SF1 exhibited greater elastase inhibition (84.2%) in comparison with EGCG. Both fractions exhibited antioxidant, anti-collagenase and anti-elastase activities and also a good biocompatibility and capacity to modulate the cell cycle progression in human dermal fibroblast culture. They showed anti-inflammatory potential by inhibition of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO) production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-inflamed THP-1-derived macrophages. Also, the level of matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) and MMP-9 secretion was reduced after treatment with C. vagabunda fractions with MMP-1 reduced by ~95% in both fractions and MMP-9 reduced by ~79% in SF2 compared with the control. Both fractions stimulated the growth of probiotic cultures Lactobacillus acidophilus and L. rhamnosus. All these results demonstrated, for the first time, the anti-aging potential of sulfated polysaccharides isolated from C. vagabunda green seaweed. Full article

Composites based on bacterial cellulose (BC) and synthetic polymers are attracting research interest as promising functional materials due to the ability to control their properties. In this study, the interactions between BC and synthetic polymers, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polylactide (PLA), and polycaprolactone (PCL), were investigated using computer modeling, and the biosynthesis, characteristics, and protein sorption capacity of the resulting composites were evaluated. In silico analysis using dissipative particle dynamics predicted a decrease in compatibility with BC in the order PVA > PLA > PCL. The calculated Flory–Huggins interaction parameters for BC/PVA, BC/PLA, and BC/PCL systems were 1.75, 3.93, and 6.03, respectively, indicating a gradual decrease in thermodynamic compatibility. These predictions were experimentally confirmed by in situ biosynthesis of BC/synthetic polymer composites under static and dynamic cultivation conditions. BC/PVA composites exhibited homogeneous morphology with pore size below 100 nm and improved structural integrity. BC/PLA and BC/PCL systems showed phase separation and broader pore size distributions, reaching up to 900 nm. The functionalization of the obtained composites via adsorption of different proteins (bovine serum albumin, lysozyme, and His₆-organophosphate hydrolase) revealed a high dependence of the results on the polymer type, the conditions applied for composite synthesis, and the molecule size of the proteins. Estimations of protein–composite interactions were conducted in silico and confirmed in vitro. The maximal sorption capacity was revealed for composites obtained during the cultivation of BC-producing microorganisms under static conditions, with the addition of synthetic polymers to the nutritional medium. In the case of enzymes used for the functionalization of composites, a partial activity loss after sorption was revealed. In BC/PVA composites, the maximal decrease in enzyme activity (~30% from the activity level of the same enzymes in the BC samples) was observed. BC/PLA and BC/PCL composites demonstrated preferences in the sorption of large protein molecules, making them attractive platforms for enzyme immobilization and biocatalytic applications of the obtained catalytically active composites. Full article

This study evaluates the effects of germination on the composition, starch architecture, thermal profiles, short-range molecular order, and pasting behavior of wheat and rice flour systems and their corresponding isolated starch fractions. Germination significantly reduced total starch content in wheat flour (74.81–56.74%) and rice flour (85.55–64.00%). Additionally, amylose content decreased from 24.70 to 18.77% in wheat flour and from 20.83 to 19.69% in rice flour. Amylopectin A-chains increased in germinated wheat flour (33.98%) and germinated rice flour (31.49%), suggesting starch depolymerization and molecular restructuring. These structural changes are associated with lower gelatinization enthalpy values, which decreased from 8.82 to 4.78 J/g in wheat flour and from 9.99 to 6.90 J/g in rice flour, reflecting reduced thermal stability after sprouting. ATR-FTIR analysis showed that germinated flours had the highest short-range molecular order (1047/1023 ratios of 0.75 and 0.71 for wheat and rice, respectively), despite their lower starch content. Germination also affected the development of viscosity; peak viscosity decreased from 2482.5 to 217.0 cP in wheat flour and from 4830.0 to 1039.5 cP in rice flour. Germination influenced protein secondary structure: it increased relative α-helix content in flour systems (from 35.23% to 36.16% in wheat, and from 36.26% to 37.58% in rice) but decreased it in isolated starches (from 42.05% to 33.17% in wheat, and from 39.60% to 36.29% in rice), suggesting a matrix-specific response. Germination-induced depolymerization and reorganization altered starch structure, thermal properties, and viscosity. These findings provide an integrated structural and functional framework that links starch architecture, molecular order, gelatinization, and the development of viscosity in germinated cereal matrices for food applications. Full article

This study reports the fabrication of curcuminoid-loaded nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)–alginate scaffolds via extrusion-based 3D printing, integrating supercritical CO₂ extraction with biofabrication. NFC–alginate inks were pre-crosslinked with CaCl₂ (1 to 10 mM) to tune structure and properties. Rheological analysis confirmed shear-thinning behavior suitable for extrusion printing. Mechanical testing revealed a non-linear dependence on crosslinking: optimal performance was achieved by Ink 2 (1 mM CaCl₂ with curcuminoid extract), with tensile strength increasing from ~0.60 to ~0.80 MPa and Young’s modulus from ~1.5 to ~3.0 MPa relative (Ink 1, 10 mM CaCl₂, without extract), reflecting the combined effect of extract incorporation and ionic pre-crosslinking rather than crosslinker concentration alone; higher crosslinking reduced stiffness (~1.15 MPa). SEM revealed porous architectures (Ink 1: 542 ± 63 μm; Ink 4: 398 ± 71 μm) with increasing structural heterogeneity upon curcuminoid incorporation. In vitro release exhibited biphasic, diffusion-dominated behavior, reaching ~50 to 60% in ethanol-containing media; PBS inclusion as a physiological reference confirmed minimal release (<5%), consistent with the known hydrophobicity and pH-dependent instability of curcuminoids and defining the physicochemical delivery boundaries of the system. The highest release (~372 ng/mL) was achieved at intermediate loading (10×). Kinetic modeling confirmed Higuchi-type diffusion as the dominant mechanism (R² ≈ 0.90 to 0.99). These results establish a clear structure–property–release relationship and position the scaffolds as a tunable, diffusion-controlled delivery platform for hydrophobic bioactives in topical or formulation-assisted applications employing co-solvents or solubilizing excipients. Full article

Hydraulic fracturing enhances productivity in low-permeability reservoirs. The introduction of nanomodified gels for hydraulic fracturing has raised the need to revise traditional approaches to their breakdown, as nanoparticles significantly change the kinetics and mechanisms of degradation. In this paper, for the first time, a systematic experimental study of the effects of chemical breakers on the rheological properties of nanomodified guar gels has been conducted. Two commercial oxidative breakers were used, which generate free radicals and cleave the guar polymer backbone, reducing viscosity. The effect of breaker concentration (0–1.82 wt%), as well as the concentration, size, and morphology of nanoparticles on gel breaking, has been studied. Guar gum was used as a gelling agent, and spherical SiO₂ and Al₂O₃ nanoparticles, as well as aluminum oxide nanofibers (ANFs), were used as additives. An increase in breaker concentration accelerates gel breaking. For instance, at 0.68 wt% breaker, complete degradation occurs in about 3 h, whereas at 1.82 wt% it takes only about half an hour, with the viscosity dropping to 30 mPa·s. While nano-additives can either slow down or accelerate degradation depending on their type, size, and concentration, the addition of 0.4 wt% ANFs prolong the degradation time to more than two hours even at the highest breaker concentration. These effects are attributed to the competition between polymer chain scission by free radicals and the formation of physical crosslinks mediated by nanoparticles. The results demonstrate the possibility of purposefully controlling the kinetics of breaking of nanomodified gels for hydraulic fracturing by optimally selecting the breaker composition and nano-additive parameters. Full article

Citrus peel, a major by-product of citrus processing, is a rich source of pectin and other bioactive compounds. In this study, pectin extracted from seven citrus species was comprehensively characterized for its structural, spectral, thermal, physicochemical, techno-functional, antioxidant, and anti-amylase properties. The extracted pectin (~50% methyl esterification) contained residual cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and proteins, with Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) confirming typical galacturonic acid-based structures. Fluorescence analysis revealed emission shifts (420–500 nm) compared to standard pectin. Thermal analysis indicated multi-stage degradation, with major transitions linked to moisture loss, polysaccharide depolymerization, and lignin oxidation. X-ray diffraction (XRD) confirmed a predominantly amorphous structure with minor cellulose domains. The pectin solution showed negative zeta potential, shear-thinning behavior, and high conductivity. Functionally, it exhibited strong swelling, hygroscopicity, and water/oil holding capacity, but low foaming ability. Biologically, it demonstrated moderate antioxidant activity and α-amylase inhibition. These findings highlight citrus pectin as a promising sustainable ingredient for food and pharmaceutical applications, with future work needed to enhance its solubility and bioactivity. Full article

Encapsulation serves as a critical strategy for the preservation of sensitive bioactive compounds, ensuring their stability and functionality within complex food matrices. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) upcycled from by-products are being favoured as wall materials because they offer a sustainable yet powerful solution for maintaining compound stability. This study evaluated the encapsulation of fish oil (FO) within a nanocomposite matrix of garlic skin-derived cellulose nanocrystals (GCNCs) and soy protein isolate (SPI). The synergistic effects of FO loading and GCNC:SPI ratios on the microcapsules’ structural, physicochemical, and digestive properties were investigated. Higher FO loading significantly reduced the moisture content of the resulting microcapsule powders while increasing bulk and tapped densities by minimising internal porosity. Microstructural analysis showed irregularly shaped agglomerates. Higher FO loading also increased surface oil retention and inter-particle adhesion of the microcapsule powders; however, elevated SPI levels effectively counteracted these effects. Colour analysis further revealed that higher FO loading reduced powder lightness (L*) and increased yellowness (b*), while greater GCNC content positively influenced redness (a*). The formulation containing 10% FO, 3% GCNCs, and 7% SPI was identified as the optimal treatment. This ratio achieved the highest encapsulation efficiency (65.77% ± 1.10) and demonstrated superior flowability, characterised by the lowest Carr’s Index (20.65% ± 0.29) and Hausner Ratio (1.23 ± 0.05). Additionally, it maintained oxidative stability, with TBARS values (2.42 ± 0.08 mg MDA/kg oil) remaining consistently below the established 3 mg MDA/kg threshold. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy confirmed the successful entrapment of FO within the GCNC–SPI matrix. According to the in vitro digestion assays, the wall material provided a durable barrier in acidic media because the gastric release (28.04–55.28%) was significantly lower than the intestinal release (64.38–77.62%). The predominant fatty acids identified in both encapsulated and unencapsulated products were myristic acid (saturated fatty acid), elaidic acid (monounsaturated fatty acid), and docosadienoic acid (polyunsaturated fatty acid). Superior nutritional quality index (NQI) values in the encapsulated samples underscore the effectiveness of the wall material in providing a critical defence against fatty acid degradation and preserving overall oil quality. These findings suggest that the GCNC/SPI binary system is a highly effective delivery vehicle for protecting sensitive polyunsaturated fatty acids in functional food applications. Full article

Salinity is a major abiotic constraint limiting strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) productivity by disrupting water relations, nutrient uptake, and photosynthetic processes. Biopolymer-based biostimulants have emerged as a sustainable strategy to enhance crop performance under stress conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of a chitosan–maltodextrin (CHTMD) formulation on growth, physiological response, and fruit quality in strawberry plants under saline conditions at the Universidad Autonoma Agraria Antonio Narro in Saltillo, Mexico. A randomized complete block design with a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement was established, including two salinity levels (0 and 45 mM NaCl) and four CHTMD concentrations (0, 250, 500, and 1000 mg L⁻¹). The application of CHTMD significantly mitigated the adverse effects of salinity and improved plant growth, biomass accumulation, gas exchange, yield, and fruit quality. Under saline conditions, 250 mg L⁻¹ increased total fresh weight by 148.5% compared with the saline control, while root length increased by up to 58.5% under non-saline conditions. Yield was enhanced by 87.3% and 71.4% with 250 and 1000 mg L⁻¹, respectively, whereas fruit number increased by up to 63.8% under salinity. Photosynthetic rate increased from 12.58 to 16.19 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ and stomatal conductance from 0.235 to 0.325 mol H₂O m⁻² s⁻¹. Fruit quality was also enhanced, with soluble solids increasing from 5.9 to 7.1 °Brix, vitamin C from 50.58 to 115.42 mg 100 g⁻¹ FW, and total anthocyanins from 65.7 to 106.2 C3G 100 g⁻¹ FW, indicating a substantial enhancement to the fruit’s nutraceutical quality, particularly at 500 mg L⁻¹ and 1000 mg L⁻¹. These findings demonstrate that the CHTMD system is an effective biostimulant capable of improving tolerance to salt stress by modulating key physiological and biochemical responses, as well as enhancing the functional quality of the fruit. This approach represents a promising and sustainable strategy for strawberry production in agricultural systems affected by salinity. Full article

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is one of the world’s major staple foods. However, its production is severely constrained by rice blast disease, caused by Magnaporthe oryzae, which leads to substantial yield losses. Conventional management relies on fungicides and chemical treatments; however, these methods raise concerns regarding the development of pathogen resistance and potential environmental impacts. This study evaluated carrageenan from Hypnea musciformis, collected from the coast of Saint Martin (92°19′21.28″ E and 20°37′38.12″ N), located in the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh, as a natural plant growth promoter as well as a biocontrol agent. Carrageenan was characterized by high sulfate (19–35%) and galactose (12–18%) contents, with FT-IR confirming characteristic κ-carrageenan functional groups. Application of 15% carrageenan significantly increased the germination of seed (27%), seedling vigor (93%), shoot and root lengths (54% and 47%), and biomass compared with untreated controls. Carrageenan markedly suppressed M. oryzae, inhibiting mycelial growth (83%), reducing conidiogenesis and conidial germination, and decreasing lesion length in detached leaves and potted plants. Treated rice seedlings exhibited improved soluble sugars, photosynthetic pigments, proline, phenolic and flavonoid contents, and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities such as CAT (catalase) and POD (peroxidase), while lowering oxidative stress markers such as H₂O₂ and MDA (malondialdehyde). These results demonstrate that carrageenan from H. musciformis enhances rice growth and elicits defense responses against rice blast, offering a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative to chemical-based fungicides for integrated M. oryzae management. Full article

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management via conventional monotherapy is often limited by poor transdermal flux and suboptimal articular accumulation. This study seeks to bridge a critical gap in monotherapy by engineering chitosan-coated nanobilosomal gel co-encapsulated with thymol and silibinin (CH-TH+SB-BG) in a 3:1 stoichiometric ratio. Compared with monotherapeutics, the CH-TH+SB-BG showed the highest drug content and a sustained drug release profile, accompanied by higher skin permeation and deposition, indicating the fluidizing effect of thymol and the dermal reservoir of silibinin. Interestingly, CH-TH+SB-BG was cytocompatible, owing to its higher IC50 than that of the pure drugs. A marked reduction in the paw volume and arthritic score and significant normalization of hematological, biochemical, and inflammatory biomarkers, compared with the monotherapeutics, indicate the synergistic anti-inflammatory potential of the developed gel. Furthermore, the dual loading effectively reduced oxidative stress, confirmed by a significant decrease in malondialdehyde level along with the restoration of glutathione and superoxide dismutase levels. The Bliss independence model mathematically validated pharmacological synergy. Radiographic and histopathological analysis confirmed the near-complete articular restoration and marked reduction in pannus formation. In conclusion, the developed transdermal gel can be a more effective and safer alternative to long-term oral administration, opening the way for novel topical management of RA. Full article

Polysaccharide–peptide conjugates are modular biomaterials that combine hydrated carbohydrate frameworks with peptide domains capable of mediating molecular recognition, degradability, antimicrobial activity, and biological signaling. In this review, we discuss how covalent, bioorthogonal, and enzymatic conjugation strategies regulate peptide density, orientation, accessibility, and stability within polysaccharide-based matrices. These chemical choices are analyzed in relation to network architecture, viscoelasticity, ligand presentation, degradation behavior, and cell–material interactions. Representative systems based on hyaluronic acid, alginate, chitosan, dextran, cellulose, and glycosaminoglycans are examined to illustrate how peptide functionalization can transform otherwise passive scaffolds into adhesive, degradable, antimicrobial, or therapeutically responsive platforms. We further highlight dynamic and enzyme-responsive materials, localized drug delivery systems, antimicrobial coatings, and antibiofilm interfaces as key biomedical applications of these conjugates. The review also addresses translational challenges associated with structural heterogeneity, stability, immunogenicity, sterilization, batch-to-batch reproducibility, and clinical feasibility. Taken together, the evidence discussed here indicates that the performance of polysaccharide–peptide conjugates depends on reproducible structure–function relationships linking conjugation chemistry, macromolecular architecture, and biological activity under application-relevant conditions. Full article

This paper investigates the valorization of peanut shell powder (PSP), an abundant agro-industrial residue, as a biofiller for the development of sustainable 3D printable PLA-based composites for food packaging applications. A low-filled biocomposite containing 2.5 wt.% PSP was successfully processed into filament with dimensional tolerances suitable for fused deposition modeling printing. Thermal and melt flow analyses demonstrated that PSP marginally reduced the thermal stability of PLA while preserving its thermal transition temperatures and increasing the melt flow rate up to 51%. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed a slight increase in crystallinity in biocomposite filament compared to neat PLA pellets, mainly associated with thermo-mechanical processing of the extrusion, while the lower crystallinity degree relative to PLA extrudate suggested a negligible nucleating effect of PSP. To optimize print quality, different extrusion temperatures and infill flow rates were evaluated. The best mechanical performance was achieved at 200 °C and 130% flow rate, where reduced inter-filament porosity (5.2%) resulted in improved tensile strength and stiffness compared with the other printing conditions. Although mechanical properties remained lower than neat PLA, the material proved suitable for non-structural packaging applications. Prototype packaging boxes were fabricated and tested for the storage of fresh-cut melon. Compared with neat PLA packaging, the PLA-PSP system better preserved fruit firmness over 10 days, inhibited fungal growth, and delayed visible deterioration, highlighting the potential active role of PSP in food preservation. Anaerobic biodegradation tests conducted under mesophilic conditions confirmed that the addition of PSP did not hinder PLA biodegradability and slightly enhanced methane production. Overall, the results demonstrate that peanut shell waste can be effectively upcycled into functional 3D-printable biocomposites for sustainable packaging solutions. Full article

As the world moves toward a circular bioeconomy, starch nanoparticles (SNPs) have emerged as key components for sustainable development. Traditional production methods have historically relied on harsh acid treatments; however, their substantial environmental footprint has catalyzed a much-needed shift toward “green” chemistry. This review explores the rise of eco-friendly synthesis strategies—including high-power ultrasound, mechanical milling, nanoprecipitation, and enzymatic hydrolysis—and explains how these “clean” methods allow us to precisely define the nanoparticles’ properties. Furthermore, the functional applications of SNPs are analyzed, focusing on their role as reinforcing agents in biodegradable packaging, natural stabilizers in food emulsions, and encapsulation matrices for targeted nutrient delivery. By connecting recent breakthroughs, this work identifies technological synergy, the integration of physical and biological methods, as the most promising route to overcome current yield and scalability limitations. Finally, a future perspective is proposed, focusing on what is needed to move these innovations from the lab to industrial applications, ensuring they are safe, effective, and truly sustainable for the global food sector. Full article

Sodium alginate was extracted from beach-cast Sargassum spp. collected along the coast of Puerto Progreso, Yucatán, Mexico, using two established pretreatment routes based on formaldehyde and ethanol. This study evaluates how extraction methodology controls alginate recovery, molecular structure, hydrogel rheology, macroscopic integrity, swelling behavior, and preliminary inorganic contaminant profiles. The ethanol-based route provided the highest extraction yield, reaching 19.87 ± 0.79% w/w for AE-5, whereas the formaldehyde route reached a maximum of 15.60 ± 0.62% w/w for AF-12; statistical analysis confirmed significant differences among extraction conditions (ANOVA, p < 0.05). Despite its lower yield, the formaldehyde route produced alginate with higher intrinsic viscosity (2.13 dL/g) and viscosity-average molecular weight (1.00 × 105 g/mol) than the ethanol-derived sample (1.33 dL/g and 0.62 × 105 g/mol), indicating better preservation of polymer chain length. ¹H NMR analysis showed that AE-5 had higher guluronic acid content (F_G = 0.60), lower M/G ratio (0.67), and higher G-block fraction (F_GG = 0.54), favoring Ca²⁺-mediated junction zone formation. Consequently, AE-5-derived hydrogels exhibited the highest storage modulus at 1 Hz (G′ = 23,650 Pa), compared with AF-12-derived hydrogels (13,160 Pa) and the commercial reference (14,480 Pa). However, visual inspection and swelling analysis showed that the higher small-amplitude stiffness of AE-5 did not translate into superior macroscopic integrity; these hydrogels showed greater fragmentation during handling and higher long-term swelling. In contrast, AF-12-derived hydrogels showed lower stiffness but better apparent cohesion and a more restricted swelling profile, consistent with enhanced long-range network connectivity derived from higher molecular weight. FTIR confirmed preservation of the characteristic functional groups of sodium alginate, whereas XRD provided qualitative evidence of residual crystalline inorganic phases. Selected-metal analysis by MP-AES detected Cu in both extracted alginates, while As was detected but not quantified only in AF-12; Cd and Pb were not detected under the analytical conditions employed. Overall, the results establish a route-dependent structure-property relationship in which extraction conditions govern yield, chain preservation, block architecture, viscoelastic response, swelling behavior, and preliminary contaminant profile. These findings support beach-cast Sargassum as a promising source of research-grade sodium alginate, while emphasizing that further purification, expanded contaminant profiling, arsenic speciation, biological evaluation, and direct mechanical testing are required before any food, biomedical, pharmaceutical, or environmental application can be proposed. Full article