Dietary Habits Contributing to Weight Gain Among a Random Sample of Undergraduate College Males

Abstract

Background: Male college students are at risk for weight gain due to unhealthy dietary habits. This study assessed the dietary habits of undergraduate college males. Methods: Online cross-sectional survey (n = 235) of randomly sampled male undergraduate college students. Results: The mean age was 21.15 ± 3.21. Most were enrolled full-time (91.5%), lived off-campus (77.4%), upper class (59.6%), had a campus meal plan (52.8%), and white (51.9%). Mean body mass index (BMI) was 25.02 ± 4.86. Males gained an average of 10.81 ± 13.01 lbs while in college. Most ate one to two servings of fruits (67.1%) and vegetables (65.1%). Significant differences in weight gained during college and fruit consumed was significant [p = 0.02 *]. Male students reported on 20 different foods and drinks they consumed at least “a few times per week.” Most ate fresh fruits (76.1%), prepared a hot meal at home (72.7%), ate fresh vegetables (68.1%). Males also ate at fast-food restaurants (47.7%) and drank coffee (44.4%). Males that reported they drank alcohol (p = 0.03*), diet soda (p = 0.03 *), coffee (p = 0.01 *), and ate at fast-food restaurants (p = 0.02 *) “a few times per week” were found to have significantly gained more weight. Conclusions: Increased intake and consumption of alcohol, diet soda, and fast-food was associated with increased weight gain among college males.

1. Introduction

Healthy People 2030 emphasizes improving overall diet quality by reducing the intake of added sugars, saturated fats, and sodium, while increasing consumption of nutrient-dense foods for a healthy and balanced dietary pattern [1]. To accomplish this, Americans need to limit their consumption of fast and fried foods, while purchasing and preparing foods from all related groups such as whole grains, fruits and vegetables, dairy products, and lean meats. However, maintaining a healthy diet routine and preparing balanced meals on a regular basis remains particularly challenging for young adults, especially college students, who often struggle with limited time, financial constraints, and an environment saturated with convenient, high-caloric, poor-nutrient-rich fast-food options [2,3]. Research studies in U.S. postsecondary settings consistently show that students purchase high caloric dense foods, high fat/sugar, and ready-to-eat/fast foods at disproportionately high rates, due to factors such as convenience and affordability rather than nutritional value [4,5]. These factors contribute to excessive weight gain due to high caloric intake and positive energy balance for sustained periods in the individuals’ diets [5]. These diets are often generally poor in essential nutrients [6]. A recent study among college students found that students preferred these foods mostly for taste, workload, and social activities [7].

The major causes of unhealthy weight gain among college students include: high meal frequency; poor snacking habits, particularly evening snacking; and high availability of unhealthy snacks. These all contribute to decreased overall diet quality, irregular meal patterns, reduced overall physical activity, and increased alcohol consumption, all of which have been associated with higher BMI and unhealthy weight gain among college students [8,9]. The on-campus food environment and student perceptions of affordability, taste, and convenience were often identified as the key factors for unhealthy eating among college students [9].

Food insecurity (FI), which is a major barrier to healthy eating, has shown to have a prevalence rate among U.S. college students ranging between 10% and 75% [4,10]. FI students and adults have been found more likely to skip meals, rely heavily on fast foods, and consume fewer healthier nutrient-dense food options like fruits and vegetables, which contribute to overall poor nutrition intake and diet quality [6,11,12]. FI students have been found to consume significantly more sugar-sweetened beverages, and significantly less fiber, fruits and vegetables when compared to food-secure students [6]. Studies have shown a significant association of college students’ FI with elevated stress, reduced sleep quality, lower academic performance, while being at increased risk for obesity [13,14,15,16,17]. This might suggest that inadequate nutrition and poor diet among students have both physiological and psychosocial consequences. This is especially concerning because college life is a critical period of development during which lifelong dietary habits are established, and poor nutrition during this stage has been linked to increased long-term risk for obesity and metabolic disorders [18]. This can possibly affect their lives even after college with poor dietary habits that were developed during their college years.

Beyond issues of access and affordability, many students lack foundational cooking skills, feel uncertain about meal preparation, or do not have consistent access to full kitchen facilities [19,20]. As a result, even students who wish to eat healthily may default to processed or ready-to-eat foods due to perceived convenience. Studies have shown the association of preparation ability and access to cooking facilities with a reduced likelihood of FI [21]. Social influences also have a strong effect on unhealthy eating behavior, as peer influence and environmental factors on-campus can influence unhealthy food purchasing patterns [22]. Purchasing mimicry, a phenomenon where a person copies another person’s purchases, was found to be present across age, gender, and status in collegiate subpopulations, which also shows the social influence and influence of environment on college students’ diet [23].

Evidence suggests that food-insecure students do not fully access support systems (in large numbers) to avoid hunger such as SNAP, campus food pantries, and nutrition assistance programs, often due to stigma, lack of awareness, or complex eligibility requirements [24,25]. Despite increased national attention to food insecurity among college students, the prevalence of food insecurity among college students persists [6]. There lies a significant gap in the literature as well, with no proper food insecurity measure being validated for use with college students [26]. Much of the existing research focuses on the prevalence and correlation of food insecurity, but fewer studies examine how food environment, cooking behaviors, and meal-preparation skills interact to shape students’ dietary patterns [10]. Similarly, while many universities have implemented hunger-relief initiatives, relatively little is known about their effectiveness, long-term sustainability, or impact on students’ health outcomes [27]. There is a pressing need for research studies that not only describe the challenges young adults face but also evaluate interventions that promote healthier dietary behavior within the unique cultural and structural context of college settings.

High stress levels, which have been linked with unhealthy/emotional eating among college students, put them at risk of gaining unhealthy weight [16]. Other related factors like irregular eating and stress-related snacking are also linked with unhealthy weight gain [28]. Understanding these patterns is particularly important because nutrition during young adulthood influences long-term health trajectories, chronic disease risk, academic success, and future economic stability. As universities continue to address student well-being, there is a growing recognition that food security, nutrition education, and supportive campus food environments are essential components of promoting student health. A more comprehensive understanding of these factors will help guide the development of targeted, evidence-based strategies to improve diet quality and reduce disparities among college students.

Students’ fast-food consumption might simply be due to being students, as recent research has positively associated fast-food intake with being on-campus [7]. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies have shown that as adolescents’ transition to college age, breakfast consumption often decreases while fast-food consumption increases, contributing to suboptimal dietary patterns [29]. Skipping meals such as breakfast may be attributed to limited time and the overconsumption of foods during other times of the day, particularly with increased fast-food consumption [7]. Gender differences in fast-food consumption among college students have also been observed, with men more likely to frequent fast-food restaurants at least once a week compared to women [30]. Fast-food choices among college students may be influenced by convenience, habitual exposure, and peer behaviors, as students are surrounded by and frequently access these options from youth to early adulthood [7,9].

Improving the diets of college students could possibly help mitigate the risk of future chronic disease. Research indicates that college students’ diets are often high in carbohydrates and sugar while low in nutrient-dense foods [4,5]. Students tend to snack more often, and the poor snacking is significantly associated with unhealthy weight gain and increased BMI [8]. Strategies such as helping food-insecure students apply for SNAP or coordinating with campus nutritionists and health educators could support healthier eating on a limited budget [19,25]. Additionally, college roommates could pool resources to purchase healthier foods in bulk, further improving diet quality.

Feraco and colleagues (2024) conducted a large-scale population survey of over 2100 adults and found marked gender differences in food preferences and eating habits [30]. The results of the study showed men reporting higher consumption of red and processed meats, while women showed greater preference for vegetables, whole grains, tofu, and high-cocoa dark chocolate, indicating healthier food choices overall. The study also revealed that women tended to eat more frequently and reported higher morning hunger levels, whereas men were more likely to skip snacks, eat quickly, and dine out. These differences among genders in food choice and meal behavior highlight the importance of tailoring gender-specific nutrition interventions. While studies have been conducted to explore eating and dietary habits among college students, the current body of literature still has limited knowledge available related to males. The goals of the current study were to examine the dietary habits of college males and to assess how these dietary habits differ based on individual weight gain.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sample

A self-administered online survey via Qualtrics was sent to a simple random sample of 5000 currently enrolled University of Florida (UF) undergraduate students. The current study uses a subset of male participants (n = 235) from Harville II et al. (2023) [24], where participants self-reported their gender as male or female. Participant recruitment, data collection, and sampling strategy can be found in detail elsewhere [24].

2.2. Data Analysis

The data for this study were analyzed using JMP Pro 18 (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA, 1989–2025) software. Descriptive statistical analyses were used to provide group percentages and compare differences among the individual variables. Sociodemographic characteristics that were measured include: current age, enrollment status (full-time/part-time), current college classification (lower class (freshman/sophomore) and upper class (junior/senior), race (white/non-white), first-generation college student, work status (employed/unemployed), US citizenship (US citizen/non-US citizen), and years in the US. Sociodemographic characteristics were compared based on weight gained using independent samples t-tests [24]. The final number of participants was (n = 235); however, due to possible missing data based on specific self-reported variables per participant, the total (n) per analysis may differ. Significance was established at the p < 0.05 level for all statistical tests.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. Weight Measures

Males self-reported weight gained, individual height, and weight, while enrolled in college. Within the instrument, males’ weight was reported in pounds (lbs). Height was reported in feet (ft) and inches and was converted to inches. BMI was calculated within the dataset using the equation 703 × (lbs/[in²]). Differences in mean weight gained while in college, mean BMI, and sociodemographic variables were examined using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Mean weight gained and mean BMI were reported with standard deviations [SD] (i.e., weight gained ± SD; BMI ± SD).

2.3.2. Student Dietary Habits

Male respondents were provided a listing of 20 different dietary habits to report how often they eat foods or consume drinks as part of a 5-point Likert scale (1—Once per day; 2—Few times per day; 3—Few times per week; 4—Few times per month; 5—Rarely/Never). For analysis, responses were dichotomized into two separate categories. The dichotomization was done a priori to distinguish the between regular and infrequent consumption patterns and to facilitate interpretation of the findings. For analysis, responses were dichotomized into affirmative (“yes”) and non-affirmative (“no”) categories. Responses of once per day, a few times per day, and a few times per week were considered affirmative or “yes.” Responses of a few times per month and rarely/never were considered not affirmative or “no.”

3. Results

The mean age of males was 21.15 ± 3.21 years. Most were enrolled full-time (91.5%; n = 215), not fraternity members (80.0%, n = 188), lived off-campus (77.5%; n = 182), not first-generation students (70.0%, n = 163), and upper class (59.5%, n = 140) were white (52.0%, n = 122). Most males were unemployed (59.8%, n = 140). Those that were employed worked on average 20.10 ± 11.02 h a week. Male students reported volunteering on average 9.28 ± 7.31 h a week. Most males were US citizens (85.6%, n = 194) with non-citizens having lived in the US on average 13.64 ± 5.73 years.

3.1. Weight Status

The mean BMI was 25.02 ± 4.86. Significant differences in BMI were found based on classification. Upper-class males had significantly higher mean BMI compared to lower-class males [25.95 ± 5.07 vs. 23.65 ± 4.19; t(232) = 13.26; p < 0.001 *]. Males gained an average of 10.81 ± 13.01 lbs while in college. Significant differences in weight gained during college were found based on race and classification. Non-white males gained significantly more weight since they started college compared to white males [17.64 ± 14.97 vs. 13.12 ± 10.71; t(155) = 4.79; p = 0.03 *]. Upper-class males gained significantly more weight since they started college compared to lower-class males [18.68 ± 15.01 vs. 9.48 ± 5.15; t(155) = 20.31; p < 0.0001 *]. Males rated their current satisfaction with their weight. Males reported their weight satisfaction as very satisfied (11.9%, n = 28), satisfied (30.6%, n = 72), somewhat satisfied (27.2%, n = 64), dissatisfied (23.4%, n = 55), and very dissatisfied (6.8%, n = 16). Significant differences were found based on weight satisfaction and weight gained [F(217) = 14.21; p < 0.0001 *]. Those that were very dissatisfied with their weight were found to gain significantly more weight compared to those that were dissatisfied [31.33 ± 23.64 vs. 13.02 ± 13.44], somewhat satisfied [31.33 ± 23.64 vs. 8.31 ± 8.35], satisfied [31.33 ± 23.64 vs. 7.97 ± 9.04], and very satisfied [31.33 ± 23.64 vs. 7.52 ± 10.88].

3.2. Campus Eating

Most males reported having a campus meal plan (52.8%, n = 124). Males reported on several campus eating habits. Most reported bringing water (bottle) to campus, (74.5%, n = 175), purchasing a meal (lunch) on-campus (56.6%, n = 133), and bringing a snack to campus (53.6%, n = 126). Other responses included purchasing items from campus vending machines (28.5%, n = 67), bringing lunch to campus (26.0%, n = 61), and purchasing food from campus grab-and-go (15.3%, n = 36). Significant differences in weight gain were found among males who reported purchasing items from campus vending machines compared to those who did not [14.55 ± 15.71 vs. 9.29 ± 11.46; t(220) = 7.65; p < 0.01 *].

3.3. Male Dietary Habits

Males rated their individual diets as good (40.9%, n = 96), fair (26.8%, n = 63), very good (17.9%, n = 42), excellent (7.2%, n = 17), and poor (7.2%, n = 17). Significant differences were found based on dietary rating and weight gained [F(217) = 6.13; p < 0.0001 *]. Those that rated their health as poor gained significantly more weight compared to those that rated their diet as excellent [24.56 ± 22.04 vs. 9.27 ± 11.10], very good [24.56 ± 22.04 vs. 6.58 ± 9.27], good [24.56 ± 22.04 vs. 10.51 ± 12.32], and fair [24.56 ± 22.04 vs. 10.85 ± 11.40].

Males (60.9%, n = 143) reported eating breakfast daily. No significant differences were found based on eating a daily breakfast. Most males reported eating fresh fruits (76.1%; n = 178), preparing a hot meal at home (72.7%; n = 170), and eating fresh vegetables (68.1%; n = 160). Other responses include: eating fast food (47.7%; n = 112), drinking 100% fruit juice (47.4%; n = 111), eating frozen meals at home (45.6%; n = 100), drink coffee (44.4%; n=104), eating frozen vegetables (41.2%; n = 97), drinking protein/meal replacement shakes (35.5%; n = 83), eating protein/meal replacement bars (33.2%; n = 78), eating canned vegetables (32.5%; n = 76), drinking sports drinks (31.1%; n = 73), drinking regular sodas (29.8%; n = 70), drinking smoothies (29.4%; n = 69), drinking alcohol (29.1%; n = 68), eating frozen fruits (21.1%; n = 49), eating canned fruits (19.8%; n = 46), drinking diet soda (9.4%; n = 22), drinking energy drinks (7.7%; n = 18), and eating at “all-you-can-eat” restaurants (4.7%; n = 11). Significant differences in weight gained by males were found for those that reported eating at fast food restaurants, drinking coffee, drinking diet soda, and drinking alcohol (p ≤ 0.02 * for all). No other significant differences were found for males’ reported eating habits (p > 0.05). See

Table 1. Differences in weight gained by total enrolled sample of college males by individual dietary habits (n = 235).

Variable	Wt (SD)	t(df)	p
Prepare hot meal at home Yes No
	10.85 (11.98)	(219) 0.0001	0.99
	10.86 (13.40)
Prepare frozen meal at home Yes No
	12.42 (14.37)	(217) 2.87	0.09
	9.43 (11.74)
Eat at “fast food restaurants” Yes No
	12.87 (14.26)	(220) 5.29	0.02 *
	8.89 (11.47)
Eat at “all-you-can-eat restaurants” Yes No
	9.40 (8.46)	(220) 0.12	0.73
	10.87 (13.20)
Eat fresh vegetables Yes No
	10.71 (13.97)	(220) 0.03	0.87
	11.01 (10.85)
Eat canned vegetables Yes No
	8.97 (10.69)	(219) 2.22	0.10
	11.73 (14.02)
Eat frozen vegetables Yes No
	10.68 (12.05)	(220) 0.02	0.90
	10.90 (13.72)
Eat fresh fruit Yes No
	10.05 (13.11)	(219) 2.59	0.11
	13.37 (12.58)
Eat canned fruit Yes No
	7.39 (8.21)	(217) 3.80	0.053
	11.66 (13.93)
Eat frozen fruit Yes No
	8.02 (8.64)	(218) 2.88	0.09
	11.62 (13.95)
Drink 100% fruit juice Yes No
	9.63 (11.82)	(219) 1.30	0.25
	11.61 (13.75)
Drink smoothies Yes No
	8.94 (9.23)	(220) 1.90	0.17
	11.58 (14.24)
Drink protein/meal replacement shakes Yes No
	10.27 (11.39)	(219) 0.26	0.61
	11.20 (13.92)
Eat protein/meal replacement bars Yes No
	10.22 (11.59)	(220) 0.24	0.63
	11.12 (13.74)
Drink coffee Yes No
	13.10 (15.52)	(219) 6.11	0.01 *
	8.80 (10.14)
Drink energy drinks Yes No
	15.59 (17.58)	(219) 2.51	0.11
	10.39 (12.56)
Drink sports drinks Yes No
	11.48 (11.85)	(220) 0.28	0.60
	10.49 (13.55)
Drink regular soda Yes No
	12.13 (13.99)	(220) 1.04	0.31
	10.21 (12.55)
Drink diet soda Yes No
	16.60 (20.34)	(218) 4.67	0.03 *
	10.11 (11.84)
Drink alcohol Yes No
	13.77 (15.30)	(219) 4.81	0.03 *
	9.61 (11.75)

NOTE: The effective sample size varies across analyses due to missing data, which is reflected in the differing degrees of freedom.* p < 0.05; one-way ANOVA; Data collected 25 April–3 June 2017.

for all reported dietary habits.

3.4. Fruit and Vegetable Consumption

Males reported on their daily fruit and vegetable consumption. Most males reported eating 1–2 servings of fruits (67.1%, n = 157) and 1–2 servings of vegetables (65.1%, n = 153) per day. Other reported responses of fruit and vegetable consumption include: 0 servings of fruit (16.7%, n = 39) and vegetables (20.4%, n = 48), 3–4 servings of fruit (14.5%, n = 34) and vegetables (14.0%, n = 33), and ≥5 servings of fruit (1.7%, n = 4) and vegetables (<0.5%, n = 1) daily. Significant differences were found based on servings of fruit consumed daily and weight gained [F(212) = 3.24; p = 0.02 *]. Those that reported who did not consume any (0 servings) of fruit daily gained significantly more weight compared to those who consumed 1–2 servings of fruit [13.88 ± 10.47 vs. 8.93 ± 9.41], and 3–4 servings of fruit [13.88 ± 10.47 vs. 7.03 ± 10.63]. No significant differences were found based on servings of vegetables consumed daily and weight gained [F(213) = 0.67; p = 0.57].

4. Discussion

The current study examined the dietary habits that contributed to weight gain among a random sample of college males. In the current sample, we found the mean BMI for males was right at 25 (within the overweight category). Research has shown that by the year 2030 over 32% of men will be overweight and 48% of men will be obese [31]. College males being overweight possibly places them at risk of obesity as they continue to age into adulthood. In college students, the “freshman 15” specifically has been a well-known term used to describe the excess weight gain they experiences when they start college [32]. In the current study, males reported gaining less than 15 pounds since they started college, which puts them under the “freshman 15” threshold. Interestingly, racial differences found that non-white males gained significantly more weight compared to white males. This might be due to a few factors, but one particularly includes dietary changes. Studies have shown that maintaining a healthy diet and preparing meals are troubling for young adults of college age, where less than half prepare meals on a weekly basis, and tend to go out to eat more often as they get to college age [33,34].

In the current study, most males reported consuming fresh fruits and vegetables as well as preparing a hot meal at home on a regular basis. Despite that, a considerable proportion of students also reported on consumption of fast food, coffee, and alcohol frequently, which were the factors significantly associated with unhealthy weight gain. These findings are similar to previous studies which show that high intake of fast-food and sugar-sweetened beverages possibly contributes to positive energy balance and increased body weight among young adults [35,36]. There is often easy access to fast and calorie-dense, poor-nutrient foods in the college environment. With time constraints, irregular meal patterns, and cheaper alternatives, students might choose these options more often, which could possibly lead to overconsumption and unhealthy weight gain over time. The limited dietary diversity due to these factors could possibly affect the overall nutrition status of the students, and this could have a negative impact on their overall health while in college. Recent studies have shown the significant association of higher ultra-processed food intake with greater visceral fat accumulation among college students [37]. Consequently, this might suggest that the excess consumption of ultra-processed foods could possibly place student’s long-term health at risk as they age.

Interestingly, fruit consumption was found to have a significant association with weight gain in this study. Males who reportedly consumed one or more servings of fruit daily gained significantly less weight compared to those who reported consuming no fruit servings per day. This finding is consistent with a past study that highlighted the protective effect of fruit intake against weight gain, where each additional 1.6 kg/day of fruit intake was significantly associated with less weight gained among the study population [38]. This may be due to higher fiber content and lower energy density, which promote satiety and help regulate total calorie intake. However, despite all the benefits, most males in the current study consumed only one to two servings of fruits and vegetables per day, which is below the recommended daily intake. This also highlights a gap in optimum nutrition in the diet among college-going males. This underscores the importance of interventions targeting the optimum consumption of fruits and vegetables among university students. For college students, recent studies have shown the differences among genders regarding intentions to consume healthier diets, with females reporting stronger motivation for healthy diet than males [30]. College males tend to prioritize taste as a primary factor when purchasing foods, which is backed by recent research showing that males are more likely to prioritize flavor over nutritional value [39]. For many students, foods that are convenient, accessible, and ready-to-go remain more favorable options for dietary purposes [3]. This preference may be due to several factors, including lack of time, limited nutritional knowledge, and low confidence or skills in preparing healthy meals at home [10,19]. In many cases, these barriers contribute to increased consumption of fast foods. Fast food options commonly available to college students provide meals that are high in fat, refined carbohydrates, sodium, and sugar-sweetened beverages, all of which are widely consumed on U.S. campuses [40]. Regular intake of these foods can contribute significantly to daily total fat and caloric intake, potentially increasing long-term health risks associated with poor diet quality [41].

Racial differences in eating habits were also seen in the study. Non-white males were significantly more likely to eat at fast-food restaurants and less likely to consume fresh vegetables, alcohol, and diet soda compared to white males. These differences could be influenced by socioeconomic factors, cultural preferences, or variations in access to healthy food options, as suggested by the prior literature [42]. These factors may have contributed to the higher average weight gain observed among non-white males compared to the white males in this sample. Research among low-income African Americans has shown that access to quality healthy foods might be limited due to environment and having to purchase more economical foods to address issues of hunger [11].

Moreover, males who frequently consumed alcohol, coffee, diet soda, and fast food were found to gain significantly more weight during college. This finding is similar to a recent study which showed the higher prevalence of overweight/obesity among the students and observed associations with frequent fast-food consumption [5]. Caffeine and artificially sweetened beverages are often perceived as healthier and low-calorie options and are recommended for healthy weight management purposes. Despite that, they may be markers of other lifestyle behaviors such as irregular eating, poor sleep, or stress-related snacking, which can collectively lead to increased positive energy balance [16,29]. Similarly, alcohol intake contributes to empty calories without proper nutrients for the body. Also, alcohol intake may reduce dietary restraint which can lead to overeating calories during or after drinking occasions.

Another notable finding was the relationship between perceived diet quality and weight gain. Those who rated their diet as poor gained significantly more weight compared to others. This self-perception might highlight greater awareness and education among students of their own eating behaviors. Studies have shown evidence of the association between higher education and higher level of awareness with lower risk of BMI [43]. This suggests that nutrition education and behavior-change interventions can play crucial roles in healthy bodyweight management, and these could be vital in preventing excessive weight gain during college years.

The current findings also demonstrated that upper-class males had significantly higher BMI and greater weight gain compared to lower-class males. This pattern of difference in BMI might reflect the cumulative effects of continued exposure to unhealthy eating habits and reduced physical activity as students’ progress through college, consistent with longitudinal findings in similar populations [41]. Students transition over time into more demanding academic and social environments as they move to upper classes. This may increase the amount of stress in their lives while less attention is given towards their nutrition and physical activity engagement. The dietary quality for males may get even worse due to limited time for meal preparation and reliance on convenient food options for a longer period of time.

Overall, the findings of the study draw attention to the importance of promoting healthy dietary behaviors among college males, particularly focusing on reducing fast food and sugary beverage consumption, increasing fruit and vegetable intake and improving the level of awareness of the long-term health consequences of poor dietary choices. Strategies like availability of healthier food options at campus dining, cafeterias, nutrition programs and interventions that encourage meal planning, cooking skills, and balanced food choices could be beneficial in helping students maintain a healthy weight throughout their college years.

Limitations

This study has several limitations that should be noted. First, the cross-sectional design of the study, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships between specific dietary habits and weight gain among college males. Consequently, the findings presented indicate associations rather than direct causality. Second, all anthropometric measures including height, current weight [to calculate BMI], and weight gained during college were self-reported by the participants. The reliance on self-reported data introduces the potential for reporting bias, such as recall bias or social desirability bias, which may result in the underreporting or overestimation of actual weight and weight changes. Third, while dietary behaviors were initially captured using a 5-point Likert scale, these variables were dichotomized into binary categories to facilitate clear, comparative statistical analysis between frequent and infrequent consumption. Finally, the analysis did not account for several potential confounding variables known to influence body weight and health outcomes. Unmeasured factors such as total energy intake, physical activity levels, sleep quality and duration, and socioeconomic status were not included in our analyses, which can limit the comprehensiveness of the findings. For the future, longitudinal studies that utilize objective anthropometric measurements and control for these extensive lifestyle confounders are needed to better understand the drivers of weight gain in this population.

5. Conclusions

The study highlights collegiate males are at significant risk of unhealthy weight gain. Males averaged an increase of approximately 10 pounds across the sample. Although many males reported some healthy dietary habits, including preparing meals at home and consuming fruits and vegetables, these positive habits were seen to be counterbalanced by frequent consumption of fast food, coffee, alcohol, and diet soda. Fast food, coffee, alcohol, and diet soda were all significantly associated with increased weight gain. Interestingly, racial differences in dietary habits and outcomes in their bodyweight suggest that cultural and environmental factors may have notable influence on eating patterns and dietary behavior among college males.