Economic and Environmental Impact of Water and Biomass Resources for Hydrogen Production in South Africa

Abstract

This study compares hydrogen production pathways from water—using renewable-powered electrolysis (alkaline, water-based)—and biomass (gasification), under harmonized system boundaries and a common functional unit of 1 kg H₂ at 99.97% purity. It examines technological efficiency and environmental impacts, including cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs) of each pathway, focusing on global warming potential (GWP100), water consumption, land use, acidification, cumulative energy demand, and the critical minerals footprint. The analysis highlights the roles of water electrolysis and biomass gasification within South Africa’s energy landscape, considering the integration of renewable electricity, energy quality, and co-product allocation. Economic factors, such as the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH), are evaluated alongside environmental indicators. The study emphasises the environmental challenges of biomass gasification, notably water use and emissions, and contrasts these with the climate benefits of renewable-powered electrolysis. It also reviews policy initiatives and government programs that support hydrogen and sustainable energy in South Africa, aligning with the SDGs. Overall, the findings underscore the trade-offs in hydrogen development, emphasising opportunities for resource utilisation while addressing deployment challenges.

1. Introduction

Hydrogen is increasingly viewed as a key energy carrier in the global transition toward low-carbon energy systems [1]. Its versatility across sectors such as power generation, transportation, industry, and energy storage makes it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels, particularly when produced using low-emission pathways [2]. However, the sustainability of hydrogen depends strongly on the production route, the feedstock used, and the associated environmental impacts across the value chain [3]. As a result, understanding the technological efficiency and environmental performance of different hydrogen production pathways remains critical for informed decision-making and policy development.

Among the various hydrogen production options, routes based on water and biomass have gained significant attention due to their potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and reliance on fossil resources [4]. Water-based hydrogen production, primarily through electrolysis, is often regarded as a clean pathway when powered by renewable electricity sources such as solar and wind [5]. Nevertheless, electrolysis systems face challenges related to energy efficiency, electricity demand, water availability, and life-cycle environmental burdens, particularly in regions experiencing water scarcity or carbon-intensive power generation [6,7]. Biomass-based hydrogen production, including gasification, pyrolysis, and reforming processes, offers an alternative pathway that simultaneously addresses waste management and energy recovery. Biomass can serve as locally available feedstocks, potentially improving energy security while reducing landfill use and methane emissions [8]. Despite these advantages, biomass-derived hydrogen pathways are associated with technical limitations, including feedstock variability, tar formation, process complexity, and emissions of carbon dioxide and other pollutants if not properly managed [9]. While numerous studies have examined individual hydrogen production technologies, a comprehensive comparison of water and biomass-based routes from both technological efficiency and environmental impact perspectives remains limited. Existing literature often focuses on specific processes or regional case studies, making it difficult to draw generalised conclusions regarding their relative performance [10,11,12].

Hydrogen production spans several emerging and conventional pathways, each at a different technological readiness level (TRL).

Table 1. Hydrogen production technological pathways potential for South Africa.

Hydrogen Production Pathway	Technology Readiness Level (TRL)	Descriptions	Strength/Limitations	South Africa Remarks	Reference
Alkaline water electrolysis	8–9	LHV of 60–70%, H2 purity of 99.9% Deionised water	Slow dynamics, near-zero carbon	Good with wind/solar/hybrids	[18]
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysis	7–9	LHV of 60–68%, H2 purity of 99.9% High water purity	Critical materials, high-cost catalyst, rapid response dynamic, zero carbon	Recommended PV energy system	[19,20]
Anion exchange membrane (AEM) electrolysis	5–7	LHV of 55–65%, H2 purity of 99.9% High water purity	Low-cost catalyst and membrane, durability concerns	Emerging technology option	[21]
Solid oxide electrolysis cell (SOEC) electrolysis	5–7	LHV of 75–85%, H2 purity of 99.9% High water purity	High efficiency, and zero carbon	Emerging technology with potential for industrial thermal recycling	[19,22]
Biomass gasification	6–8	LHV of 45–60%, H2 purity of 95–99% Lignocellulose materials	Readily available biomass as a feedstock with quality variation poses a carbon impact and requires carbon sequestration or cleanup	Biomass footprint available, rural jobs creation	[23]
Vegetable biomass gasification	4–6	LHV of 40–55%, H2 purity of 90–98% Agrowaste/vegetable biomass	Readily available feedstock, H2 via thermochemical conversion, tar formation, variation in feedstock quality, poses a medium carbon footprint	Strong agricultural waste streams support local H2 production	[16]
Biomass pyrolysis + reforming	5–7	LHV of 40–55%, H2 purity of 95–99%	Biomass availability, heat generation, low carbon, and upstream methane needs upgrading	Recommended for dispersed residues	[23,24]
Coal gasification + carbon capture system (CCS)	8–9	LHV of 40–60%, H2 purity of 95–99%	The use of coal requires CCS, high carbon emissions	Declining relevance with domestic coal usage	[20]
Photocatalytic/photoelectrochemical H2 production	3–5	LHV of <30%, H2 purity of 90–99%	Low efficiency, light source, catalysts, zero carbon	At the lab scale, offers solar resources utilization	[14]
Biohydrogen (dark/photofermentation)	3–5	LHV of 5–20%, H2 purity of 50–90%	Organic waste utilisation with low hydrogen yield	At the lab scale, with potential for valorisation of municipal waste	[25,26]
Microbial electrolysis cell (MEC)	3–5	LHV of 40–55%, H2 purity of 90–98%	Highly organic wastewater, scale-up concerns, low H2 yield	At the lab scale, with potential for municipal wastewater	[27,28]
CH4–H2 combustion in O2-enriched/ozone-assisted air	5–6	NA—Not available	Enhances combustion, flame stability and pollutant control with relevance for hydrogen-blended fuel systems	Future H2 blending fuels and combustion industry	[17]

provides a concise comparison of mainstream and emerging pathways, including photocatalytic and bio-electrochemical routes, highlighting maturity, performance, and contextual relevance to South Africa. Beyond mature technologies such as water electrolysis and biomass gasification, photocatalytic water splitting has recently attracted attention for its potential to enable direct solar-to-hydrogen conversion using semiconductor-based catalysts. Recent studies have demonstrated improved visible-light absorption, enhanced charge separation efficiency, and stable catalyst performance under ambient conditions [13,14]. Similarly, advances in heterojunction photocatalysts and co-catalyst engineering have shown promising increases in hydrogen evolution rates [15]. While photocatalytic systems are still at early development stages compared with electrolysis and thermochemical biomass routes, the long-term potential, particularly in countries with high solar irradiance such as South Africa, justifies their inclusion in the broader hydrogen production landscape. Thus, integrating photocatalytic hydrogen production into this review (Table 1) provides a more comprehensive comparison of emerging pathways. Recent advances broaden the hydrogen landscape beyond electrolysis and conventional gasification. The studies (Table 1) further show that agricultural residues can serve as viable feedstocks for decentralised green hydrogen production, strengthening biomass diversification strategies [16]. Similarly, CH₄–H₂ combustion research using oxygen-enriched, ozone-assisted air demonstrates improved flame stability and efficiency, supporting safer and more effective hydrogen–methane blending [17]. Together, these advances highlight the need to integrate both production-side innovations and end-use performance insights into the evolving hydrogen landscape.

Furthermore, variations in system boundaries, assumptions, and evaluation metrics complicate direct comparisons of energy resources across demographic studies. Figure 1 shows the percentage of resource allocation in South Africa, which proves that the country is more reliant on fossil fuels [29]. All renewable sources, such as water, wind, and solar, are sustainable and readily available worldwide [30]. It is essential to evaluate hydrogen production processes to understand how this transition will affect the economy and what can be done to reduce the costs. The environmental consequences of mismanaged biomass and wastewater include increased greenhouse gas emissions, soil and groundwater contamination, and the spread of waterborne diseases [31]. These impacts underscore the urgency of adopting sustainable waste-to-energy solutions. Generally, the impact of innovation on environmental quality is linked to the notion that technological progress improves efficiency in production methods and the utilization of natural resources, thereby leading to a decrease in CO₂ emissions [32].

1.1. The Energy Sector and Climate Change

South Africa is in a position of producing a significant amount of CO₂ emissions as a result of coal burning due to the energy sector’s reliance on coal [33]. South Africa is the leading CO₂ emitter in Africa, accounting for more than 34% of total CO₂ emissions [29]. The rise in CO₂ emissions threatens the sustainability of our planet [34]. CO₂ is regarded as one of the primary greenhouse gases and it represents the majority of greenhouse gas emissions [35]. Electricity and heat production are the largest rise by sector, and experienced a considerable growth rate to satisfy the increasing demand, attaining approximately 950 Mt, which represented 45.5% of the global growth in emissions releases [36].

Generally, the impact of innovation on environmental quality is linked to the notion that technological progress improves efficiency in production methods and the utilization of natural resources, thereby leading to a decrease in CO₂ emissions [32]. El-Adawy, Dalha [37] examined the classification of hydrogen colour codes with different production routes derived from both renewable and non-renewable sources to understand the emission profiles (Figure 2).

1.2. South Africa’s Energy and Climate Change Legislation

South Africa possesses a range of regulations designed to decrease CO₂ emissions and minimise the effects of climate change. The nation’s initiatives to safeguard the environment are influenced by domestic legislation and global obligations, especially in accordance with the Paris Agreement, using the key regulations and initiatives presented in this section [38]. The various policies and regulations adopted and implemented in South Africa include but are not limited to the following:

i.

South Africa’s National Climate Change Response Policy (2011) outlines the country’s strategy for addressing climate change, aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and transition to a low-carbon economy. It involves establishing emissions reduction goals, improving energy efficiency, and encouraging the adoption of renewable energy [39]. Climate change is the alteration in climate patterns primarily driven by greenhouse gas emissions. Greenhouse gas emissions cause the heat to be retained by the Earth’s atmosphere, and this has been the primary factor contributing to global warming [40]. Global warming, which drives climate change, is responsible for the record number of severe weather events, including wildfires, rising sea levels, heatwaves, and severe droughts, and these extreme hydrometeorological events impose a substantial financial burden on the global economy, according to Dube, Nhamo [41].

ii.

South Africa implemented the Carbon Tax Act (2019) to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This tax is imposed on organisations that emit significant amounts of CO₂, including power generation facilities, industrial sites, and transportation sectors [42]. The goal is to encourage these sectors to embrace cleaner technologies and lessen their carbon footprint. South Africa is the sole nation in sub-Saharan Africa to have established a carbon tax to date, and, in a global context, was proactive in exploring its introduction at the beginning of 2010 [43]. With an economy that has traditionally been energy- and carbon-intensive due to the complexity of its mineral–energy mix, South Africa ranks as the fourteenth-largest emitter of greenhouse gases worldwide and is the continent’s biggest emitter [44].

iii.

The Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) outlines South Africa’s approach to transitioning to a more sustainable energy mix, with a targeted implementation year of 2030. The IRP extended the electricity generation strategy and comprises substantial investments in renewable energy sources, including solar and wind power, to substitute fossil fuels in electricity production [45,46].

iv.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations: South Africa’s EIA regulations, overseen by the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA), require that any significant development or industrial activities undergo a comprehensive environmental assessment [47]. This guarantees that potential CO₂ emissions and other environmental effects are considered and addressed. From its initial design 50 years ago, EIA has been regarded as a policy tool to enhance environmental preservation by recognising and addressing possible environmental effects of suggested developments [48].

v.

International Commitments (Paris Agreement): As a signatory of the Paris Agreement, South Africa is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions and combating global warming [49]. The nation has committed to reaching its peak emissions by 2025, maintaining that level for a period, and then significantly reducing them by 2030 [50]. Air pollutant emissions for each sector in 2040 were obtained from the IEA STEPS data on fuels and associated sectoral activities to approximate ambient air pollution levels [51]. CO₂ emissions from fossil fuels were calculated using the IEA STEPS data, while CO₂ emissions were assessed based on precursor emissions (i.e., SO₂, NO_x, chlorofluorocarbons, and HCFCs) according to the GAINS assumption for sectoral activities [51,52].

vi.

Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Programme (REIPPPP): The REIPPPP was established by the South African government to obtain and ensure a more sustainable energy combination, transitioning from the nation’s dependence on fossil fuels toward more sustainable energy sources [53]. This initiative promotes the advancement of renewable energy projects in South Africa by inviting private investors to compete for contracts for renewable energy supply [53,54].

These actions represent South Africa’s broader initiatives to safeguard the environment, mitigate climate change, and transition to a more sustainable energy future. Although obstacles persist, mainly due to reliance on coal for power, these efforts signify progress in reducing CO₂ emissions.

2. South African Hydrogen Development

Clean hydrogen has received significant attention in South Africa’s industrial sector, offering considerable opportunities for job creation and sustainable development. Africa’s population is projected to reach nearly 1.3 billion, having grown at an annual rate of 2.5% over the past decade. This has caused a direct demand for energy to align with growth as the nation aims to decrease its carbon footprint, due to the surge in population [55]. There are some developments related to the production of clean hydrogen in South Africa across different provinces, as shown in

Table 2. Some of the published green hydrogen projects in South Africa as per the Government Gazette.

Project Name	Area	Project Details	Sources
Prieska Power Reserve	Northern Cape	The use of renewable solar and wind energy, along with water and air resources, from the Prieska area to produce green hydrogen.	[56,57]
Ubuntu Green Energy Hydrogen Project	Northern Cape	This project focuses on producing green hydrogen via electrolysis, powered by renewable energy from solar and wind sources, and supported by storage solutions. Their aim is to use 40% of green hydrogen to produce green ammonia and to sell the remaining 60% to the market.	[58]
Boegoebaai Green Hydrogen Development Programme	Northern Cape	The Boegoebaai programme plans to create a hub for green hydrogen and its derivatives on the West Coast of the Northern Cape. The project aims to achieve an initial electrolyser capacity of 1.2 GW by 2028. It will then increase to 5 GW by 2035 and eventually reach 10–20 GW by 2050.	[59,60]
Sasolburg Green Hydrogen Production Hub	Free State	A programme for moving from fossil fuels to sustainable sources has been proposed in Sasolburg. This will be achieved by installing solar and wind plants developed by independent power producers. More renewable energy will be sourced from IPPs that use off-site resources, delivered via the grid alongside local renewable power generation.	[61,62]
SASOL HySHiFT	Mpumalanga	Secunda plans to transition to more sustainable materials in its processes. This includes using carbon from unavoidable sources, such as biomass, and from green hydrogen produced through electrolysis.	[63,64]
HIVE Ammonia	Eastern Cape	This project plans to use electrolysis powered by renewable energy from solar panels and onshore wind turbines. It aims to produce green ammonia upon full operationalisation, which is expected in 2028.	[60,65]
Hydrogen Valley Corridor	Limpopo, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal	Anglo American’s Green Hydrogen Valley plan includes nine pilot projects to start the hydrogen economy. These projects will focus on the transport, industrial, and building sectors. These projects will use hydrogen for mining trucks, heavy freight, buses, ammonia, chemicals, and fuel cell power. The projects are spread across four areas in Limpopo, Gauteng, and KwaZulu-Natal.	[60,66]

.

Analysing the data on South Africa’s electricity generation across provinces, as depicted in Figure 3, the histogram shows that the Northern Cape has the highest level of renewable energy deployment, including solar PV, wind, and biomass. It is closely followed by the Eastern Cape Province, with the Western Cape also demonstrating notable contributions [29]. It is therefore crucial to improve other provinces so that they achieve the same level of sustainable resource production.

Renewable energy provides significant economic, environmental, and social benefits. It reduces carbon emissions and air pollution associated with energy production while also improving the reliability, security, and resilience of the power grid [67,68]. Figure 4 shows the energy resources used to generate electricity, with projections from 2010 to 2050 for future energy production. South Africa requires a significantly greater energy supply to support future growth. According to a report by Standard Bank and Cresco Group, South Africa will meet its current energy demand only by 2040 [69]. Nevertheless, the report suggests that about 27% of coal-fired power plants will remain in the country’s energy mix by 2040 [70]. There are numerous plans in the pipeline to ensure South Africa becomes a significant role player in the green hydrogen markets, which require the decarbonisation of hard-to-abate sectors to reach global net-zero greenhouse gas emission targets, and this is embedded in numerous empowering policies and plans [71]. South Africa has unique advantages in hydrogen production, such as the potential of solar and wind resources, ample land, and a good supply of platinum-group metals, which are used in the manufacturing of electrolysers and fuel cells as catalysts [72,73].

2.1. Hydrogen Road Map and National Energy Policy in South Africa

The South African government has included renewable energy in its energy mix to achieve decarbonization goals, as outlined in its policy document on the REIPPPP [74]. South Africa, as an integrated member of the regional consortium, has also undertaken numerous initiatives to identify hydrogen-related opportunities for the global economy and to evaluate the investment viability of three industrial hubs and several upstream industry sectors [75]. Certainly, South Africa is among the most cost-effective locations for renewable energy generation through solar and wind. Since the foundation for affordable clean hydrogen depends on these sources, the country has the capacity to assume a pivotal role in the emerging clean hydrogen economy.

A just transition will also require global cooperation and solidarity, as well as strong support [76]. The climate is changing, and biodiversity loss is a serious threat. Policy strategies have expanded to incorporate sustainability principles, leading to the state’s commitments under the Paris Agreement and the establishment of a Just Transition framework [77]. Despite these advancements, South Africa remains vulnerable to both physical and transition risks linked to climate change. These vulnerabilities are intensified by socio-economic disparities, governance challenges, and a historically carbon-intensive growth model [78].

The South African Department of Mineral Resources (DMRE) supports the Hydrogen Society Roadmap, which seeks to create a competitive and sustainable hydrogen economy by 2050, following the strategy in [79]. The DMRE foresees a future in which hydrogen is utilised across diverse sectors, such as transport, industry, and power, and in which South Africa becomes a major participant in the international hydrogen market [80]. The roadmap’s objectives are to transition from grey to blue and green hydrogen, while focusing on developing an export market for green hydrogen and ammonia, as stated by the Department of Science and Innovation (DSI) [81]. Through the DSI, the government has allocated resources to the development of scientific learning areas considered essential to promoting South Africa’s growth and global competitiveness [82]. Among the seventeen (17) SDGs, the focus was placed on four specific goals. SDG 7 addresses affordability and clean energy. SDG 9 discusses industry, innovation, and infrastructure, particularly in the context of green hydrogen production. SDG 12 focuses on sustainable consumption and production, emphasising the National Framework for Sustainable Development and the National Strategy for Sustainable Development. SDG 13 calls for immediate measures to combat climate change and its effects. This study aligns with these goals and supports efforts to achieve the UN SDGs.

2.2. Waste to Energy Initiatives

In South Africa, the primary focus is on reducing waste, but this is challenging given the current population growth rate. The waste-to-energy initiative (Figure 5) in South Africa is a pivotal step toward sustainable development, transforming biomass and municipal solid waste into valuable energy. While this approach offers significant opportunities for economic growth and social progress, it also presents challenges that require careful navigation to realise its full potential. Biomass encompasses materials sourced from living organisms, serving as the foundation for bioenergy production [83]. Using biomass for energy is environmentally friendlier, as the materials are low-cost and locally abundant, and it also creates employment opportunities for workers in suburban and rural areas worldwide [84]. This review paper examines the utilisation of municipal solid waste (MSW) as a source of hydrogen, highlighting its potential to support national development and mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is any waste that includes all items from businesses and homes that people are no longer used for anything [85]. There are two types of MSW, which are called organic and non-organic waste [86]. This is what we usually call waste, including items such as wood, textiles, food, paper, plastics, leather, glass, metals, sanitary waste from septic tanks, and other materials. As shown in Figure 5, the data indicate that biomass potential is currently utilised in only four provinces, with regions such as Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and the Western Cape—areas characterised by high population densities that have not yet harnessed biomass resources. This suggests that education and encouragement are needed to improve sustainable production in these provinces. With this focus, research and innovation are required to increase the utilisation of biomass and hydroelectric systems. Additionally, it provides valuable insights into the most suitable locations for each production method, thereby contributing to employment generation in those regions.

Figure 5. Renewable generation distribution by provinces South Africa, modified from [87].

Figure 5. Renewable generation distribution by provinces South Africa, modified from [87].

South Africa’s increasing population highlights a significant knowledge gap regarding sustainable waste management solutions. The goal is to promote reuse, recycling, composting, and energy recovery, considering disposal only as a last resort [88]. As shown in Figure 6, the waste management hierarchy approach must be followed appropriately to keep up with the control of waste, as waste will be in demand once it is effectively used for the production of hydrogen [89].

In South Africa, biomass hydrogen production is closely linked to the country’s agricultural and municipal waste streams. The agriculture and forestry sectors generate significant quantities of residues such as sugarcane bagasse, maize stalks, wheat straw, and forestry off cuts, particularly in provinces such as KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Limpopo, and the Eastern Cape. In addition, rapidly growing urban populations contribute to increasing volumes of municipal solid waste, much of which is currently disposed of in landfills [91]. Converting these biomass resources into hydrogen offers an opportunity to address waste management challenges while simultaneously producing clean energy. To address this, using municipal solid waste (MSW) for hydrogen production offers promising opportunities to meet energy needs and improve waste recycling [92]. According to Liu, Han [93], hydrogen produced from biogas can reduce GHG emissions more than using biogas as fuel or for biogas-to-electricity. This study suggested that over 1.58 million tons of coal will be saved annually by 2035, resulting in a reduction of 4703.24 kt CO₂-eq in GHG emissions. There have been observations of a lack of adequate measures to support the use of waste as a resource through reuse, recycling, and recovery, while protecting the environment and enhancing economic and social development [94].

2.3. Deployment of Hydrogen Challenges

South Africa provides a range of investment incentives to advance the production of clean hydrogen, which includes tax breaks, infrastructure assistance, and financial subsidies; however, these are regarded as limited when compared to the country’s ambitious objectives [61]. The significant difficulties or barriers to implementing hydrogen production include high production costs, the absence of developed or dedicated infrastructure, energy losses, and the need for transparent regulatory and policy frameworks. Clean hydrogen encounters barriers that hinder its full involvement in South Africa’s energy transition [95].

• Tax Incentives—The expenses associated with the production of clean hydrogen will possibly be reduced by lowering the taxes and costs within the hydrogen value chain and the return on investments for projects, and reducing corporate, business and sales taxes on GH₂ could additionally recover revenues [95,96].
• Subsidies and Other Financial Support—To appease the political faction, the national government of South Africa began the project to subsidise the conversion of coal-fired power plants to hydrogen-fired power plants in 2022. In doing so, it aims to promote legitimacy and public support [97].
• Infrastructure Support—Agyekum [98] stated that a significant challenge in the future commercialisation of the hydrogen economy is determining how to design and operate the infrastructure, mainly because of the numerous technological opportunities in the industry, some of which are still under development in production, storage, and distribution. Building the required infrastructure for hydrogen production requires a significant investment. In a developing region like Africa, this could pose an obstacle, as many countries are struggling with substantial debt. Securing funding for renewable energy projects, in general, has been a considerable challenge for developing economies as this entails high start-up costs.
• High Costs—One of the primary drawbacks of clean hydrogen production at present is the rate of its production, which is presently 3 to 6 times more expensive than the production of grey and brown hydrogen (Figure 2). Therefore, the output of this type of hydrogen currently accounts for 5% of the overall hydrogen production [99]. The expenditure associated with hydrogen production, particularly for clean hydrogen, is higher due to the start-up capital required for equipment and infrastructure [100].
• Lack of Infrastructure—Regardless of the significant technical potential, Africa’s participation in the global hydrogen market is restricted by constraints in access to funding, technology, infrastructure, and policy firmness [101].
• Safety Concerns—Hydrogen is a gas that is highly inflammable and can be explosive; therefore, any loss of containment, specifically during production, distribution, and usage, may cause significant safety risks [102].

3. Energy Resources for Hydrogen Production

3.1. Biomass for Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen production from biomass represents a promising pathway for low-carbon energy generation, particularly in countries with abundant biomass resources and growing waste management challenges. Biomass-derived hydrogen is produced through thermochemical and biochemical conversion processes, where organic materials are transformed into hydrogen-rich gas streams [103]. Common feedstocks include agricultural residues, forestry waste, energy crops, and municipal solid waste, all of which are available in varying quantities across South Africa [104].

Thermochemical processes, particularly gasification, are the most widely studied routes for hydrogen production from biomass in South Africa [105]. Biomass gasification involves the partial oxidation of feedstock at high temperatures, typically between 700 and 1000 °C, to produce synthesis gas composed mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methane [106]. Subsequent water–gas shift reactions and gas cleaning steps can increase hydrogen concentration to levels suitable for industrial and energy applications. Gasification is considered suitable for South Africa due to its compatibility with diverse feedstocks and its potential for integration with existing coal gasification expertise and infrastructure [89]. As shown in Figure 7, hydrogen can be obtained from biogas from municipal solid waste collection, which is environmentally friendly [89,107,108]. MSW in South Africa is abundant and widely distributed; using it as a source for hydrogen production will not only help address waste management challenges in various countries but also generate clean energy through waste treatment [107]. A 2015 feasibility assessment conducted by the Department of Energy found that all provinces in South Africa have potential for renewable energy generation. This suggests the potential to increase hydrogen production nationwide [87].

Biomass-based hydrogen production offers several environmental and socio-economic advantages for South Africa [109]. From Figure 7, an environmental perspective, biomass is often considered carbon-neutral since the carbon dioxide released during conversion is offset by carbon absorbed during plant growth [93]. When biomass residues or waste streams are used, the process can further reduce methane emissions from landfills and open dumping [92]. Montiel-Bohórquez, Saldarriaga-Loaiza [110], stated that MSW plasma gasification included marketing electricity and vitrified slag, reducing MSW final treatment costs by 92% compared to selling electricity only. Additionally, the amount and the gate amount were found to be the most important parameters on the economic outcomes of the plasma gasification plant. The implementation of MSW thermal treatment for energy recovery has proven to be a practical waste valorisation strategy, while the amount of landfill-disposed waste is kept to a minimum [110].

MSW appeared to be an attractive feedstock in South Africa due to its low cost in the production of hydrogen using gasification or other thermochemical processes [111]. MSW has a different cost structure, subject to waste collection levies, tipping fees at landfills, pre-processing costs, and logistics [112]. A summary of studies on traditional biomass or fossil fuels, and key cost drivers for municipal waste, is shown in

Table 3. Key cost drivers of municipal solid waste in South Africa.

Project	Description	Sources
Urban vs. Rural Variations	Cities such as Johannesburg, Cape Town, and Durban have developed collection systems that are cheaper than those in rural areas, where systems are absent and more costly per tonne.	[113,114]
Waste Composition	The cost of pretreatment increases for high-moisture, contaminated waste (e.g., plastic, metal).	[115,116]
Landfill Policy Pressure	The expansion of landfill taxes and the closure of landfills have made MSW more attractive for sustainable processes.	[89,117]
Energy Content	South African MSW generally has a lower heating value (LHV) of 6–10 MJ/kg, compared with clean biomass, but it is adequate for the gasification process.	[118,119]
Government Incentives	Certain projects benefited from grant support for the diversion of waste from landfills under the National Waste Management Strategy.	[120,121]

. From a socio-economic standpoint, biomass-derived hydrogen can contribute to rural development, job creation, and energy diversification, thereby supporting national goals outlined in South Africa’s Hydrogen Society Roadmap and climate commitments [61].

3.2. Hydrogen Production with Water Electrolysis

Alkaline water electrolysis is one of the most established and commercially mature technologies for hydrogen production using water as a feedstock [122]. The process involves the electrochemical splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen using an alkaline electrolyte, typically potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, and electricity as the energy input [123]. Hydrogen is produced at the cathode, while oxygen is generated at the anode, separated by a diaphragm that prevents gas mixing. Due to its technological maturity, operational reliability, and relatively low capital cost compared to other electrolysis technologies, alkaline water electrolysis remains a key option for large-scale hydrogen production [10].

In the South African context, alkaline water electrolysis is particularly relevant due to the country’s high renewable energy potential. South Africa has some of the world’s best solar and wind resources, especially in regions such as the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape. When powered by renewable electricity, water electrolysis enables the production of green hydrogen with significantly reduced greenhouse gas emissions, supporting national decarbonisation goals and commitments under international climate agreements [124]. Water electrolysis typically operates at temperatures between 60 and 90 °C and atmospheric to moderate pressures, achieving electrical efficiencies in the range of 60–70% based on the lower heating value of hydrogen [125]. These performance characteristics make the technology suitable for steady, large-scale hydrogen production, particularly when coupled with a stable renewable power supply or grid-connected hybrid systems. In South Africa, alkaline electrolysis can be integrated with utility-scale solar photovoltaic and wind projects, as well as with existing industrial electricity users, such as refineries, ammonia producers, and synthetic fuel plants [126].

Water availability is a critical consideration for alkaline water electrolysis in South Africa, given the country’s water scarcity challenges. Although electrolysis requires relatively small volumes of water compared to other industrial processes, the sourcing and quality of water remain important factors. The use of treated wastewater, desalinated seawater, or mine-affected water has been proposed as a viable option to reduce pressure on freshwater resources, particularly in coastal or mining regions [127]. Pre-treatment is necessary to ensure electrolyte purity and system durability, which may increase operational complexity and cost [128]. From an environmental perspective, the sustainability of hydrogen produced via electrolysis in South Africa is significantly affected by the electricity source [129]. However, when coupled with dedicated renewable energy systems, life cycle emissions are substantially reduced, positioning alkaline electrolysis as a key enabler of green hydrogen production.

South Africa’s Hydrogen Society Roadmap identifies water electrolysis as a central technology for future hydrogen export and domestic use. In addition, large-scale deployment requires significant upfront investment in renewable generation capacity, water infrastructure, and hydrogen storage and transport systems. Addressing these challenges will require coordinated policy support, infrastructure planning, and continued technological development. Electricity and heat are supplied to the electrolysis cells to facilitate the decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen through an electrochemical reaction, which involves two (1–2) half reactions [130].

Reduction reaction on the cathode area

$${4H}_2{O}_{\left(l\right)}+{4e}^{-}\leftrightarrow {2H}_{2\left(g\right)}+{4OH}_{\left(aq\right)}^{-}$$

(1)

Oxidation reaction in the anode area

$${4OH}_{\left(aq\right)}^{-}\leftrightarrow O_{2\left(g\right)}+{2H}_2{O}_{\left(l\right)}+{4e}^{-}$$

(2)

3.3. Prospects and Challenges of Biomass and Water Resources

The economic factors of hydrogen are shaped by its production methods, required infrastructure, market conditions, and the regulatory landscape [131]. The development of clean energy is fundamental to the comprehensive clean development of hydrogen energy, as shown in Figure 8. The prerequisite for achieving a zero-carbon energy system is the environmentally friendly, zero-carbon production of hydrogen [132], utilising renewable energy sources like photovoltaic (PV) and wind energy to generate hydrogen. Electrolysis, along with the efficient use of renewable energy and the large-scale production of hydrogen, is widely regarded as a crucial pathway [133].

With current technologies and economic conditions, producing hydrogen from biomass and residual waste is both technically and economically feasible in many developed countries [135]. By 2050, biomass will supply more than 25% of energy demand [84]. Unlike processes that rely on fossil fuels, biomass-to-energy methods reduce CO₂ emissions and absorb atmospheric CO₂, resulting in carbon-neutral emissions [81]. The energy recovery and the specific heat of the product gas are both higher due to the high syngas (CO, H₂) yield. On the other hand, in liquefaction and pyrolysis, the yield is lower because of the intricate nature and the presence of secondary reactions between volatiles and hot solid particles [136]. Garcia-Vallejo and Cardona Alzate [137] evaluated the gasification and electrolysis technologies experimentally, and the yields obtained were used as input data for the scaling-up process using simulation tools. Biomass gasification was more cost-effective than electrolysis, with hydrogen production costs of 4.57 USD/kg and 8.30 USD/kg at annual production rates of 491.6 tons and 38.96 tons, respectively [137]. The electrolysis process is influenced by the recycled water rate and the electricity cost, shown in

Table 4. Comparison between biomass and electrolysis routes for hydrogen production.

Details	Biomass	Electrolysis	Sources
Costs	Requires lower capital investments.	Large-scale electrolysis plants require higher upfront capital investments.	[144,145]
Feedstock	More readily available and less expensive.	Depends heavily on electricity, which is expensive if not fuelled by renewable sources.	[103,146]
Challenges	Low efficiencies and requires specialized infrastructure.	Efficiency varies, and storage and transportation of hydrogen produced by electrolysis have some challenges.	[147,148]
Emissions	Biomass gasification process does generate some greenhouse gases which needs to be captured to avoid harm in the atmosphere.	Electrolysis via renewable electricity is considered a clean hydrogen production process with low direct emissions.	[149,150]

. Capital expenditures (CAPEX) comprise costs associated with equipment and infrastructure, such as gasifiers and electrolysers [138]. Operating costs comprise expenses related to procuring feedstocks, electricity, water, and maintenance [139]. The levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) represents the cost per kilogram of hydrogen throughout the plant’s operational lifespan [140]. OPEX comprises certain expenses that remain constant each year, like those tied to maintenance and repair, along with other sporadic costs, such as stack replacement expenses, which arise when a stack is changed [141,142,143].

Worku, Ayele [146], mentioned that food leftovers, agrochemicals, blended plastics, pharmaceuticals, municipal waste residue, and animal waste are abundant and inexpensive, making them readily available and low-cost lignocellulosic feedstocks.

Table 5. Techno-economic studies of the production of hydrogen globally.

Topic	Research Aim	Results	Model Used	Sources
Techno-economic analysis of large-scale green hydrogen production and storage	Research focused on the analyses of the techno-economic potential of waste heat recovery from multi-MW-scale green hydrogen production. A 10 MW proton exchange membrane electrolysis process was modelled with a heat recovery system that was coupled with an organic Rankine cycle (ORC) to drive the mechanical compression of hydrogen.	The technical results shows that when implementing waste heat recovery combined with an ORC, the electrolyser first-law efficiency increased from 71.4% to 98%. The results also revealed that electricity prices dominates the LCOH. When electricity prices are low (e.g., dedicated offshore wind electricity), the LCOH becomes higher when implementing heat recovery. The extra capital and operating expenses associated with the ORC increase the LCOH, and these added expenses exceed the savings obtained from not buying electricity for compression.	Aspen Plus® Software (Version 12)	[21]
Techno-economic analysis of current and emerging electrolysis technologies for green hydrogen production	A techno-economic analysis of green hydrogen production via alkaline electrolysis and solid oxide electrolysis technologies was presented. Their present state of development and predicted improvements were also considered for an alkaline electrolyser operating at high pressure and temperature and a solid oxide electrolyser operating at high pressure.	Based on their results, the projected capital expenditure for solid oxide electrolysers, reducing the levelized cost of electricity from 60 to 30 EUR/MWh, would reduce the cost of hydrogen from 3.2 to 1.9 EUR/kg by 2050. With the current capital expenditure, natural gas priced at 30 EUR/MWh and electricity cost of 30 EUR/MWh, a CO2 tax of 90 EUR/tCO2 would make electrolytic hydrogen from alkaline electrolysers less expensive than hydrogen produced from natural gas. It was noted that supplying free steam boosts the efficiency of the low-pressure solid oxide electrolyser from 79 to 94%.	MATLAB (R2024b, version 24.2)	[151]
Techno-economic analysis of solid oxide electrolysis using concentrated solar energy for green hydrogen production in South Africa	A techno-economic analysis and optimisation of a 100 MW theoretical SOEC plant with heat integration from concentrated solar thermal and thermal energy storage in the Northern Cape of South Africa for green hydrogen export were explored. The main goal was to carry out the direct economic comparison between a hybrid system that derives thermal energy integration from concentrated solar thermal + thermal energy storage, and a reference system that utilizes thermal energy from electric heating.	In summary, this thesis showed the financial benefits of incorporating concentrated solar thermal + thermal energy storage into an SOEC plant that is powered by PV and wind turbines, resulting in a 4.1% drop in LCOH. Nonetheless, the integration introduced complexity and related operational and financial risks, which will affect investment decisions.	Python 2.7 and EBSILON®Professional 12.02.01	[152]
Analysing the prospects of grid-connected green hydrogen production in predominantly fossil-based countries—a case study of South Africa	Their study examines South African approaches to enhancing and decarbonising the energy sector while simultaneously producing hydrogen for export. These approaches include the Integrated Resource Plan, the Transmission Development Plan, the Just Energy Transition, and the Hydrogen Society Roadmap for grid-connected hydrogen production by 2030.	Results from an hourly-resolution optimisation in Plexos suggested that annual grid-connected hydrogen production of 500 kt may result in a 20–25% rise in electricity costs by 2030, due to South African emission limitations, in scenarios with reduced renewable energy integration. Although the electricity price remains within an acceptable range, and the hydrogen price could be competitive in the global market (2–3 USD/kgH2 for production), the emission factor associated with this hydrogen exceeds that of grey hydrogen, varying from 13 to 24 kgCO2/kgH2.	Plexos10 modelling platform	[153]

summarizes recent techno-economic studies.

3.4. Life Cycle Assessment of Hydrogen Production Pathways

Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a systematic method used to evaluate the environmental impacts associated with a product, process, or system throughout its entire life cycle [154]. It considers all stages, from raw material extraction and resource processing to production, operation, and final outputs, within defined system boundaries [155]. By quantifying inputs such as energy, water, and materials, as well as emissions to air, water, and soil, LCA provides a comprehensive view of environmental performance [156]. This approach supports informed comparisons among technologies and helps identify key drivers of impact and opportunities for improvement. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted to evaluate and compare the environmental performance of hydrogen production via biomass gasification and alkaline water electrolysis powered by renewable energy. The analysis was performed using SimaPro 10.2 (Recipe 2016), a widely used LCA software, to quantify environmental impacts across the full life cycle of each pathway. The assessment provides insight into the trade-offs associated with each technology and supports a more comprehensive comparison that extends beyond process efficiency and hydrogen yield. The primary goal of the LCA was to compare the environmental impacts of producing hydrogen from biomass gasification and alkaline water electrolysis under South African conditions. The functional unit selected for the analysis was 1 kg of hydrogen produced at the plant gate, allowing for a direct and consistent comparison between the two production routes.

3.4.1. Assessing the Impact of Biomass and Water for Hydrogen Production

Life cycle inventory data were developed using a combination of literature sources, Aspen simulation data, and background datasets from SimaPro 10.2 databases, such as Ecoinvent. Following ISO 14040/14044 standards, it is cradle-to-grave, based on a functional unit of 111 kg of hydrogen, using ReCiPe 2016 midpoint and endpoint methods from the Hierarchist perspective [157]. A life cycle assessment (LCA) evaluates impacts such as carbon footprint (GWP100). For biomass gasification, inventory inputs included biomass feedstock production or collection, transport distances representative of South African conditions, auxiliary electricity consumption, water usage, and emissions associated with gasification and syngas upgrading. Biomass was treated as a renewable resource, with biogenic carbon flows accounted for separately in the greenhouse gas assessment. For alkaline water electrolysis, the inventory focused on electricity consumption as the dominant input. Renewable electricity was modelled using solar photovoltaic and wind power datasets reflecting South Africa’s renewable energy mix. Additional inputs included water consumption, electrolyte use, stack replacement, and balance-of-plant components. Assumptions regarding electrolyser lifetime and efficiency were incorporated to reflect commercial alkaline systems. As shown in Figure 9, the impact assessment employed the ReCiPe 2016 method, which evaluated the midpoint indicators such as global warming potential, resource depletion, human toxicity, and ecosystem quality. These indicators were selected for their relevance to hydrogen sustainability and to South Africa’s resource constraints.

The comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) results for four hydrogen production systems, gasification of municipal solid waste (MSW) and alkaline water electrolysis powered by wind energy, photovoltaic (PV) energy, and a PV–wind hybrid mix, are as depicted in Figure 8. The results in Figure 8 are expressed as normalised contributions across multiple environmental impact categories, including global warming, ozone depletion, ionising radiation, particulate matter formation, and resource scarcity.

• The analysis reveals that MSW gasification consistently dominates most impact categories, particularly global warming, fossil resource scarcity, and water consumption, where its share exceeds 50% of the total impact [158]. In contrast, electrolysis-based systems exhibit significantly lower contributions to climate-related impacts but show higher shares in categories such as ionizing radiation, human toxicity, and mineral resource scarcity, especially for PV-powered electrolysis due to the material intensity of photovoltaic technology [159]. The hybrid PV–wind system demonstrates intermediate performance, balancing the impacts between wind and PV contributions. These findings highlight a clear trade-off: while electrolysis routes reduce greenhouse gas emissions relative to MSW gasification, they impose additional burdens on resource depletion and toxicity-related categories, underscoring the importance of a holistic sustainability assessment when selecting hydrogen production pathways.
• In the global warming impact category, hydrogen production from municipal solid waste gasification has the highest relative contribution compared to electrolysis-based pathways. This is mainly due to direct process emissions from gasification, auxiliary energy requirements, and upstream activities such as waste collection and transport. Although the biogenic nature of the feedstock partly offsets these emissions, the gasification route remains more carbon-intensive than renewable-powered electrolysis within the defined system boundaries.
• The alkaline water electrolysis powered by renewable energy has a lower global warming potential, with wind-based electrolysis performing slightly better than photovoltaic-based systems. The PV–wind hybrid system exhibits intermediate performance, reflecting the combined embodied emissions of the two renewable technologies. These results highlight the strong influence of electricity sources on the environmental performance of electrolysis-based hydrogen production. Overall, the LCA results demonstrate that alkaline water electrolysis powered by renewable energy outperforms biomass gasification in most climate change and air pollution-related impact categories. However, electrolysis pathways have greater impacts on mineral resource scarcity, land use, and water consumption, particularly for photovoltaic-based systems. Biomass gasification, while more emission-intensive, offers advantages in waste valorisation and reduced reliance on critical minerals.

3.4.2. Land, Water, Forestry and Carbon Footprints

Developments in GHP in Africa provide opportunities to mitigate potential strain but may impose on land and other resources used on the continent. Chigbu and Nweke-Eze [160] argue that the production of green hydrogen (GHP) in Africa has implications for land use. Additionally, the sustainability of GHP production, particularly with respect to land and natural resource utilisation, depends on the effectiveness of good governance and robust institutions across the continent. Figure 10 presents four stylised footprints, each symbolising a different type of environmental impact or theme.

Depending on the allocation of land for installing solar panels or wind turbines, less than 50% of the hydrogen required in 2050 may possibly be met through local production without a scarcity of land or water [161]. Kweinor Tetteh, Sijadu [20], concluded that thermochemical conversion of biomass (gasification and pyrolysis) was not environmentally friendly and required further carbon capture technology to reduce the carbon footprint. Biological conversion of biomass into hydrogen through dark fermentation and photo-fermentation has significant potential to address carbon footprint and energy challenges. Combining water electrolysis with renewable energy sources such as solar and wind is seen as the most cost-effective and environmentally friendly way to utilise South Africa’s renewable resources for hydrogen production.

3.4.3. Waste-to-Energy Benefits in Biomass Valorisation

Waste valorisation is defined as the process of transforming waste materials into valuable resources or energy sources, moving beyond traditional disposal. This includes various industrial methods that reuse, recycle, or compost waste materials, converting them into useful products, energy sources, or even raw materials for different processes [162]. Recent advances in hydrothermal and biological treatments have significantly improved the efficiency of biomass valorisation, enabling higher yields of desired products while reducing environmental impacts [163]. Most African countries are paying attention to valorising their bioresources and byproducts to advance efficient, integrated biorefinery processes. Africa is central to the debate on biomass valorisation, climate transformation, and sustainable development [164]. Hydrogen produced from waste such as food, wood, and agricultural waste, as well as from manure, is classified as eco-friendly [165]. Producing hydrogen from waste is crucial to addressing waste management and energy scarcity through the Waste-to-Energy initiative [166]. This will benefit the South African waste industry by addressing the space-constrained conditions they currently face.

3.4.4. Grid Decarbonization Impact on Electrolysis Viability

Currently, South Africa’s grid cannot accommodate the additional electricity demand and therefore requires the construction of additional generation capacity [167]. The authors of [143] report that, based on an optimisation process with an hourly resolution, an annual grid-connected hydrogen production of 500 kt may result in a 20–25% increase in the electricity cost where renewable energy set-ups are lower, due to emission constraints in South Africa by the year 2030. Pandarum [71] notes that concerns regarding water availability for producing green hydrogen have been acknowledged; thus, most large production plants are planned for locations near coastlines to enable seawater desalination. This increases the need for grid capacity in these regions. The most recent Eskom Transmission Development Plan (TDP) indicates that improving this transmission grid corridor to achieve an additional 58 GW of grid capacity will require 7 to 10 years, assuming no significant difficulties are encountered. This capacity alone will still fall short of the 100 GW target and was technically estimated based on projected electricity demand growth under current living conditions (not directly factoring in demand for green hydrogen electricity). This is an issue and a consequence that must be considered when pursuing the country’s green hydrogen aspirations.

3.5. Comparative SWOT Analysis of Biomass Versus Electrolysis Routes

A SWOT analysis comprises the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) associated with a project or organisation [168]. A SWOT analysis comparing biomass- and electrolysis-based hydrogen production in South Africa shows that each method has distinct benefits and drawbacks [169].

Table 6. SWOT analysis of biomass versus electrolysis routes.

Aspect	Biomass Gasification	Water Electrolysis	Sources
Strength	-Makes use of abundant agricultural, forestry, and municipal solid waste for production. -Offers dual advantages: waste management and production of energy. -Requires lower electricity when compared to electrolysis routes. -Has the potential to produce hydrogen at minimal costs (depending on biomass availability and logistics).	-Produces highly pure hydrogen straight away. -Can be easily incorporated with renewable sources such as solar, wind, etc. -No direct carbon emissions when fuelled by renewables. -Flexible and scalable from small to large systems.	[171,172]
Weakness	-Variability in feedstock influences the efficiency of gasification and the quality of syngas. -Although emissions are lower compared to fossil fuels, they can still emit CO2 and other pollutants if not completely captured. -Needs thorough gas purification to achieve high-purity hydrogen. -The logistics involved in the collection, storage, and transport can be expensive.	-Requires assistance from renewable capacity since electricity consumption is between 30 and 55 kWh/kg H2. -High capital expenses for electrolysers. -Accessibility of water can be a problem in areas with drought. -Irregular power supply (solar, wind) affects operation unless backed up by storage.	[152,173,174,175]
Opportunities	-Utilising agricultural waste to enhance rural economies. -Possible incorporation with carbon capture and storage (CCS) to produce “negative-emissions hydrogen”. -Usage of marginal land for the cultivation of energy crops. -Government support for waste-to-energy projects. -Export opportunities for “waste-based hydrogen”.	-South Africa’s robust solar and wind resources enable renewable-powered electrolysis. -Dropping prices of solar PV and electrolysers over time. -Opportunities for green hydrogen export markets (EU, Japan). -Government’s green hydrogen roadmap and financing prospects. -Decarbonization of the industrial sectors such as mining, steel, ammonia, etc.	[19,162,167,176,177,178]
Threats	-Sectors such as bioenergy, biofuels, and fertilizers competing for biomass. -Deforestation threats if biomass is not obtained sustainably. -Changes in policy away from technologies based on combustion. -Public concern over perception regarding emissions and land usage.	-Instability in the grid and loadshedding are affecting the supply of renewable energy. -Water shortage in some areas critical for electrolysis. -Worldwide competition driving down hydrogen costs. -Hold up in the development of infrastructure such as hydrogen pipelines, storage, and export hubs.	[69,179,180,181,182]

presents some of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats of the processes for producing hydrogen. Sylvester and Masiya [170] highlighted that energy security plays a vital role in rural development, impacting healthcare, education, agriculture, and local entrepreneurship. In addition, Table 6 presents the potential socio-economic and environmental benefits of renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, hydro, and bioenergy, as long-term solutions to energy uncertainty in rural areas. This necessitates an all-encompassing, transdisciplinary approach to address challenges that extend beyond conventional academic constraints and to bring together diverse stakeholders in a coordinated effort to achieve sustainable development.

3.5.1. Socio-Economic Co-Benefits of Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen production in South Africa offers considerable socio-economic co-benefits, such as improved energy security, reduced emissions, and economic growth, while promoting innovation and job creation [183]. Job creation, poverty alleviation, and health emerge as benefits, thereby deepening the understanding of how sustainable energy contributes to holistic societal well-being. Sustainable energy initiatives, ranging from the installation of solar panels to the development of wind farms, promote job creation in multiple sectors, and the renewable energy sector encourages employment opportunities, aiding in economic expansion and diversification [184]. The appeal of the private investment program has not only diversified the energy mix but also accelerated economic growth through job creation and benefits for local communities [185]. The implementation of sustainable energy projects in rural areas can stimulate local economic growth [186]. Whether through community-owned renewable energy systems or the creation of energy-related companies, these efforts enhance economic activity in areas that have typically been overlooked [187]. These advantages help foster a cleaner, more sustainable, and thriving future for our country.

3.5.2. Alignment with UN Sustainable Development Goals

The Sustainable Development Goals, which were endorsed by all United Kingdom member states in 2015 for the 2030 Agenda, offer a common framework for achieving peace and prosperity for both individuals and the planet now and for the future [188]. There are currently 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which call for urgent action for all nations (developing and developed) within a partnership [189]. Among these SDGs, this paper will focus on SDG 7 (Affordable and clean energy), SDG 9 (Industry, innovation and infrastructure), SDG 12 (Responsible consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate action). Policies and programs initiated by policymakers will assist in reaching the targeted SDGs before the year 2030 [183].

• SDG 7—Affordability and clean energy

Studies prove that green hydrogen clearly corresponds with SDG 7 by facilitating the integration of renewable energy, tackling intermittency issues, and assisting with rural electrification and clean cooking in underprivileged areas [190]. SDG 7 can be achieved by increasing the renewable energy being shared within the energy supply, enhancing the energy efficiency, promoting access to clean energy production and technology, and developing infrastructure while improving technology to provide sustainable energy services [22]. South Africa is working towards the plans to align green hydrogen production with SDG 7 by focusing on the scaling up of renewable energy infrastructure, amending policy frameworks, and guaranteeing energy access, dependability, and sustainability [191]. Some activities that are leading to SA’s alignment with SGD 7 for green hydrogen are as follows: In the Northern Cape, there is a project using solar and wind energy to power electrolysis for green hydrogen, which is expanding renewable energy capacity [192]. Hydrogen hubs (e.g., Boegoebaai and Coega) seek to incorporate green hydrogen into the national energy mix, improving energy security, which is strengthening energy infrastructure [59]. SA’s Just Energy Transition Investment Plan (JET-IP) identifies green hydrogen as a key component [193].

• SDG 9—Industry, innovation and infrastructure

South Africa’s Hydrogen Society Roadmap (HSRM) envisions an economy centred around hydrogen, which necessitates substantial investment in infrastructure, such as electrolysers, hydrogen storage, and transportation systems [194]. The advancement of green hydrogen has the potential to rejuvenate the existing coal industry by offering alternatives to energy production based on coal, as emphasised by the Hydrogen South Africa (HySA) strategy [195]. South Africa has shown a deep devotion to infrastructure advancement, evident in its SDG 9 score of 70.8, which highlights initiatives to improve global competitiveness using infrastructure and industrial expansion [196].

• SDG 12—Responsible consumption and production

Green hydrogen production promotes sustainable energy practices and advances the maturity of cleaner technologies [197]. South Africa has foundational policies that guide its approach to sustainable consumption and production: the National Framework for Sustainable Development and the National Strategy for Sustainable Development [174]. South Africa has adopted strategies to reduce waste generation through prevention, reduction, recycling, and reuse, in accordance with SDG Target 12.5.

• SDG 13—Climate action

Green hydrogen production plays a crucial role in South Africa’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement, which seeks to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [198]. Due to the dangers posed by climate change, SDG 13 calls for immediate measures to address climate change and its effects [61]. Renewable energy will directly contribute to mitigating climate change, adapting to its effects, and lowering the exposure of communities to the causes of climate change [199]. South Africa can substantially lower its carbon footprint and contribute to global efforts to mitigate climate change by substituting fossil fuels with green hydrogen [124].

3.5.3. Future Research Directions

Future prospects point toward a diversified hydrogen production landscape that integrates renewable-powered electrolysis with emerging biomass gasification pathways, tailored to South Africa’s heterogeneous resource base. Advancing research, targeted pilot demonstrations, and strengthened policy frameworks will be essential for improving technological performance while reducing environmental burdens. Within this context, integrating water-based electrolysis, biomass feedstocks, and decentralised hydrogen systems offers an opportunity to build a resilient and regionally adaptive hydrogen economy aligned with national climate and development objectives. To support this transition, the study highlights the importance of developing decentralised hydrogen hubs in water-abundant regions, improving grid integration for variable renewable energy, and expanding local water-treatment capacity to ensure reliable PEM operation. Equally important are policy reforms that harmonise water–energy governance, introduce incentives for distributed green hydrogen production, and establish national standards for hydrogen purity, storage, and safety to promote market confidence and system interoperability. Technological progress remains vital, particularly in advancing low-salinity groundwater electrolysis, improving pre-treatment of mineralised waters, and reducing capital and operating costs for PEM systems and hybrid renewable configurations.

Looking ahead, further research in South Africa should focus on addressing infrastructure, economic, and environmental challenges associated with using biomass and water resources for hydrogen production. Priority areas include developing sustainable biomass supply chains, optimising logistics for rural biomass collection, and assessing the land-use implications of large-scale gasification systems. Additional work is needed to evaluate aquifer sustainability under increased hydrogen-related water extraction and to design integrated water-treatment systems that minimise energy use and brine discharge. Economic research should explore cost-optimised configurations that couple electrolysis, biomass gasification, and renewable microgrids, while environmental analyses should assess life cycle emissions, biodiversity impacts, and resource trade-offs across regions. Together, these research directions will support the emergence of a robust, environmentally responsible, and economically viable hydrogen sector tailored to South Africa’s unique resource conditions.

4. Conclusions

This study highlights the potential of water electrolysis and biomass gasification as sustainable pathways for hydrogen production in South Africa. Water electrolysis, especially when powered by renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, produces high-purity hydrogen with stable performance and lower environmental impacts related to climate change and air pollution. Its modular scalability and lower sensitivity to feedstock variability make it suitable for integration into South Africa’s growing renewable energy sector. In contrast, biomass gasification can utilise municipal waste and other biomass resources, providing a valuable avenue for waste valorisation. Although it exhibits higher greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts over its life cycle, using waste biomass reduces landfill and methane emissions, presenting environmental trade-offs. Its efficiency depends on feedstock quality and system integration, with operational complexity and emission controls posing challenges for large-scale deployment. Environmental assessments indicate that electrolysis generally has lower impacts on climate change and air quality, but it raises concerns regarding resource scarcity and water use, particularly with photovoltaic systems. Sustainable sourcing and water management strategies are crucial, particularly in water-scarce regions.