Augmented Reality for Natural Heritage Education: A Design Framework for Enhancing Indoor Experiences

Abstract

Augmented Reality (AR) seamlessly blends the real-world environment with digitally generated content, creating an interactive hybrid experience where both realities coexist. This paper explores an augmented reality application developed for natural heritage education, specifically designed to enhance indoor learning. The focus is on a learning activity titled Exploring the Aquarium, implemented by the Education Centre for the Environment and Sustainability (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria as part of an environmental education program. The activity enriches students’ knowledge and experiences during their aquarium visit, fosters active participation in the learning process, stimulates cognitive interest, and encourages actions that support the ecological restoration of aquatic ecosystems. This paper presents the application’s design criteria, thematic focus, learning objectives, and core functionalities. Additionally, the paper presents findings from quantitative research evaluating the learning experience. A questionnaire tailored for AR applications was employed to assess aspects such as challenge, educational value (knowledge gained), user collaboration, and intention to reuse the app. Data were collected from 148 K-12 students during the 2023–2024 school year. Descriptive statistical analysis revealed that all factors were evaluated highly. The results indicate that the AR-enhanced educational activity captured the students’ interest and facilitated a collaborative learning environment. The application was positively rated for its functionality, usability, informational content, and the satisfaction it provided, as well as its ability to encourage cooperation and future reuse.

1. Introduction

The utilization of augmented- and mixed-reality digital applications represents a relatively recent trend that is gaining increasing popularity. In recent years, augmented- and mixed-reality digital applications have been leveraged by organizations within the cultural, tourism, and educational sectors, and have been extensively studied by a variety of researchers [1,2,3,4,5].

Focusing on the educational aspect of augmented-reality digital applications, research data demonstrate that they promote active learning, provide stimuli and motivation for students, enhance their satisfaction, and improve learning outcomes. The scenarios of augmented-reality digital applications may unfold in areas of historical, cultural, and environmental interest, while their content may encompass text, images, animated graphics, three-dimensional models, videos, and audio files [3,6,7].

The present study focuses on the utilization of augmented reality (AR) in freshwater fish fauna education. The learning activity, titled “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”, is part of the environmental education program “The Routes of Water—The Lake of Kastoria”, and is implemented by the educators of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria.

The Environment and Sustainability Education Centre (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria functions as an autonomous educational entity, founded in partnership with the Ministry of National Education and Religious Affairs and the Municipality of Kastoria, with the main objective of conducting one-day or three-day environmental education initiatives for primary and secondary educational institutions throughout Greece. The primary focus of the Educational Team of the center is the training of students on environmental issues; the professional development of educators; the creation of educational materials; the establishment of thematic networks, local and international collaborations; and research on environmental topics and environmental education. In addition to fostering awareness of environmental issues among the youth, the center’s goals include supporting environmental education initiatives in schools, encouraging educators to serve as catalysts for similar activities in their regions.

The educational activity is conducted in the interior of the Aquarium of Kastoria and is supported by an augmented-reality (AR) digital application, which was designed and developed to upgrade the learning experience and enrich it with elements from the digital environment, such as texts, images, audio files, and more.

The design of the experiential activities was based on the theories of experiential and situated learning, which encourage students to engage with practical, real-world problems, thereby promoting learning through hands-on experiences and active participation in authentic environments, such as the Aquarium of Kastoria in our case. “Experiential learning” signifies a process of education that is centered around the learner’s personal experiences. This learning format incorporates active participation and discovery through practical experiences, rather than focusing solely on theoretical instruction. Situated learning is associated with the concept that learning is more effective when conducted in specific environments that reflect real-life situations and the conditions under which knowledge and skills will be applied [8,9,10,11].

A key focus in the design and development of the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” was the achievement of specific educational objectives and goals. These are the following: (a) enrichment of the learning experience with interactive digital elements, which upgrade conventional teaching approaches, and motivate students to continuously interact with the living exhibits of the aquarium and the objects of the digital environment, thereby making the concepts of natural heritage more accessible and understandable [12,13]; (b) enhancement of students’ interest in the biodiversity of freshwater ecosystems and encouragement of their active participation in the learning process [13]; (c) offering customized educational experiences designed to meet the varied interests of learners and advance the concept of differentiated instruction [14]; (d) provision of self-regulated learning opportunities, through which students are empowered to select the digital resources they wish to utilize for exploring fish fauna, thus assuming responsibility for their educational experience [15]; (e) promotion of awareness and knowledge among students about the importance and value of freshwater ecosystems and the sustainable practices required for their management [13]; (f) advancement of cooperative and team-based learning through the encouragement of student communication and the sharing of perspectives, experiences, and knowledge, aimed at ensuring the successful accomplishment of the learning activity [16,17]; and (g) development and enhancement of students’ digital skills through their engagement with contemporary technologies during the educational activity [18,19].

The above-mentioned learning objectives and aspirations shape an educational experience that informs, inspires, highlights the value of freshwater ecosystem biodiversity, and promotes lifelong learning.

The design and implementation of the augmented-reality (AR) application was based on the Waterfall process model, a conventional approach to software development characterized by a linear and predetermined sequence of the following phases: Requirements Analysis, Design—Coding, Testing, Operation and Maintenance [20,21].

Regarding evaluation, primary and secondary education students participated in a survey conducted to assess the learning experience. The research findings were obtained from 148 students who completed the questionnaire.

The operational obligations of the E.S.E.C Kastoria, approved by the Ministry of Education, include the following: documentation of the educational institutions visited, mandatory evaluation of specific programs using relevant questionnaires completed by participating students and accompanying teachers while ensuring their anonymity, the maintenance of these records in files, and annual submission of them to the Ministry of Education.

The questionnaire design was based on the existing literature and included an evaluation of the organization of the educational activity, and an evaluation of the augmented-reality application. The evaluation of the augmented-reality application consisted of eighteen Likert scale questions which aimed to evaluate specific aspects of the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”: challenge, usefulness/knowledge, interaction/cooperation, and intention to reuse.

In conclusion, the primary research goals of this study included the following:

• The design and development of a location-based augmented-reality application intended for indoor spaces;
• Presentation of the development stages of the augmented reality application, which focuses on the fish fauna of freshwater ecosystems;
• The development of an appropriate evaluation scheme based on earlier research that aims to assess factors that are relevant to location-based augmented-reality experiences;
• The assessment and interpretation of the relationships among the following constructs: challenge, usefulness/knowledge, interaction/cooperation, and intention to reuse, utilizing an initial conceptual framework for analyzing hypothetical correlations (e.g., how the intention to reuse is influenced by other categories, the ease of use, and the challenge affecting knowledge, etc.), through which, following a multiple regression analysis, significant and strong correlations will emerge.

Beyond the mandatory implementation of educational programs for students, the Environment and Sustainability Education Centres (E.S.E.C.) in Greece have an additional, contractually defined objective: to inspire the educators who accompany the students. These educators are expected to act as multipliers in their schools, applying the teaching methods, knowledge, and experiences gained during the educational visit.

Therefore, through both the implementation of the program and the present article, the authors aim to provide essential guidance on how educational visits to indoor spaces (such as museums, aquariums, etc.) can be transformed into engaging and enjoyable AR experiences.

An additional indirect research objective is the attempt to investigate the extent and manner in which the teachers that accompanied the students visiting the Aquarium were influenced and inspired during the specific educational program, as well as their intention to act as multipliers by potentially implementing similar AR activities with similar or different themes in indoor spaces of their area, using open-source platforms that do not require advanced programming skills or special indoor tracking hardware (e.g., iBeacons).

In Section 2, a concise review of the literature is provided, while, in Section 3, the educational program is described in detail. A comprehensive overview of the materials and methods can be found in Section 4. The software utilized to develop the augmented-reality digital interactive application is discussed in Section 5, while an extensive description of the application is provided in Section 6. The evaluation process and the evaluation results are presented in Section 7 and Section 8, respectively. Ιn Section 9, the results and research findings are discussed. Finally, in Section 10, the limitations and potential advancements of the research are outlined.

2. Related Work

2.1. Augmented and Mixed Reality

According to Milgram and Kishino [22], mixed-reality (MR) environments involve merging real and virtual worlds along continuous virtualization (VC) and connecting real environments with virtual ones, either as augmented reality or augmented virtuality (Figure 1).

The authors of the article [22] define the continuum of virtuality (Virtuality Continuum, VC) as the continuum between reality and virtuality (Reality–Virtuality, RV), taking into account that the concepts of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) are two concepts that are at the ends of a continuum. This continuum reflects and highlights the progressive transition from the real environment to the virtual and vice versa. Mixed reality includes augmented reality (AR), in which the user is in the real world and interacts with virtual objects, and augmented virtuality (AV), in which the user is in a virtual world augmented by real objects. However, the boundary between augmented reality and augmented virtuality is not clear-cut and depends on applications and uses [23].

In the research article by Koleva et al. [24], the boundaries of mixed reality are introduced, and these create transparent windows between physical and virtual spaces. A set of properties, such as permeability, state, and dynamics, but also meta-properties such as symmetry and representation, allow these boundaries to be formed.

In the research article by Lindeman and Noma [25], a new framework for comparing multisensory AR applications based on the mixing points of real and virtual stimuli is proposed. Examples of different types of technologies involving all five senses through multimodal screens are presented, in contrast to the work of Milgram and Kishino [22], in which the definition of mixed reality (MR) arises solely from the properties associated with optical screens.

The term “Augmented Perception of Reality” instead of augmented reality (AR) is proposed for the first time in the research article by Hugues et al. [26], in which the authors argue that reality cannot be augmented, in contrast to its perception, which can be expanded. Therefore, although augmentation of reality is impossible, it only makes sense when we focus on human perception of the world.

In the research article by Suomela and Lehikoinen [27], an augmented-reality (AR) system is proposed in which the visualization of digital information is based on location, taking into account the complexity of the environmental model (the number of dimensions used for the visualization), as well as the user’s point of view (first- or third-person perspective).

Normand et al. [23] ranked augmented-reality applications based on the following aspects: tracking degrees of freedom (0D, 2D, 2D + i, 6D), type of augmentation (mediated or instant augmentation), time frame of the content (past, present, future, fictional), and rendering modes.

The research article by Tönnis et al. [28] analyzes the representation of virtual information in augmented-reality systems related to a physical environment, taking into account temporality, dimension, frame of reference, placement/registration, and type of reference.

The authors of paper [29], in addition to virtual, augmented, and mixed reality along the X-axis of the Reality–Virtuality (RV) continuum, introduce a second Y-axis, Mediated Reality, defining it either as deliberately mediated reality, meaning devices and systems that intentionally modify reality, (e.g., eyeglasses that filter out advertisements), or as Unintentionally Mediated Reality, something that happens every time we place any technology between us and our environment (e.g., video-see-through Augmented Reality). The superset of mediated (XY), mixed (X), augmented (A), and virtual (V) reality is defined as Multimediated Reality, which uses interactive multimedia in a way that is multidimensional, multisensory, multimodal, and multidisciplinary.

Speicher et al. [30], by conducting interviews with ten AR/VR experts and a literature review of 68 papers, concluded that there cannot be a single definition of mixed reality. The authors proposed a conceptual framework for organizing different notions of MR along seven dimensions: number of environments, number of users, immersion level, virtuality level, degree of interaction, input, and output. They also derive various MR definitions: Continuum (Reality–Virtuality continuum), Synonym (MR as a synonym for AR), Collaboration (MR as a kind of collaboration of an AR user and a VR user), Combination (MR as a combination of AR and VR, which interact with each other but are not necessarily necessary tightly integrated), Alignment (MR as aligning a virtual representation with the real world), and Strong AR (MR as a “stronger” version of AR or MR is an evolution of AR).

Taking into account the significant advances in technology made over the past 25 years, Skarbez et al. [31] reexamine the Reality–Virtuality (RV) continuum of Milgram and Kishino [22] that focused solely on visual displays and their hardware, without taking into account the mediation technology, the transferred content, and the resulting user experience. According to Skarbez et al. [31] Milgram and Kishino’s [22] description of virtual reality would be better defined as “external virtual reality” (Figure 2), since observers can experience external virtual environments through the stimulation of the five basic external senses (i.e., sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste), while interoceptive senses remain unaltered. The authors further argue that the Reality–Virtuality (RV) continuum is actually discontinuous and define a type of virtual environment, “Matrix-like”, that is outside the mixed-reality spectrum (Figure 2), inspired by the popular film “Matrix”, where sensory agreement is accomplished by direct brain stimulation: a person’s sensory organs are in some way disconnected from their brain such that both interoceptive (e.g., proprioception) and exteroceptive (e.g., sight) senses are stimulated by technology. The authors argue that this is the only type of virtual environment that could exist outside of the mixed-reality spectrum.

2.2. Augmented Reality and Natural Heritage and Environmental Education

The article by Kamarainen et al. [32] discusses the “EcoMOBILE” project, which combines augmented-reality (AR) experiences with environmental sensors, during a student educational trip to a lake setting. The outcomes of the aforementioned research underscore the multiple benefits derived from employing AR technologies in teaching and learning. The students collaborated, expressed enthusiasm, and gained a deeper understanding of the subject, while the educators assumed a facilitative role in the conduct of the educational activities.

In order to enhance the learning experience during a visit to a Thai zoo, Srisuphab et al. [33] propose an augmented-reality (AR) mobile application, “ZooEduGuide”. The described application combines learning, educational games, and navigation to selected points of interest that the visitor can see by following specific routes in the zoo (Visit Zoo mode).

An augmented-reality (AR) game for mobile devices is presented in [34], designed for use in a primary school physical sciences course. This game, inspired by a traditional board game, allows players to roll digital dice, to navigate in a butterfly garden, and to respond to questions. Evaluation of the augmented-reality (AR) application was conducted using pretest and posttest questionnaires. As per the evaluation outcomes, the suggested educational approach contributes to the improvement of students’ learning attitudes and their learning performance.

The study by Pombo et al. [35] discusses the development of a mobile game, titled “EduPARK”, which integrates geocaching and augmented-reality (AR) technologies. Its objective is to foster authentic and autonomous learning among users concerning various interdisciplinary topics within an urban park setting. Evaluation of the educational game highlighted its positive attributes, including the prompt feedback offered to users and the collaborative dynamics it fostered.

By leveraging the ARIS platform, Mei and Yang [36] investigated the impact of location-based augmented reality (AR) and gamification for mobile devices on environmental education and English language learning in higher education in China. Their research outcomes reveal that these approaches promoted English language learning and raised awareness about environmental issues.

Within the framework of a botany course, the authors of [37] aimed to enrich the educational experience by integrating augmented-reality (AR) educational tools that provided diverse and detailed visualizations of plants. The research results indicate that the students who engaged in the educational activity and utilized augmented reality to observe plants achieved a higher level of comprehension regarding the conceptual analysis and layout of plant leaves than those who did not use the AR tools.

Mass and Hughes [38], through a comprehensive literature review of studies related to the use of mixed-reality (MR) technologies in the instruction of primary and secondary education students, underscored the emergence of common themes, including collaboration, communication, critical thinking, attitudes, engagement, learning, motivation, performance, and achievements.

Arvola et al. [39] describe a research project that investigated the use of augmented reality for mobile devices in conjunction with outdoor education in an elementary school in Sweden. Outdoor learning spaces and technology were used to broaden students’ awareness of the local environment surrounding their school. Teachers and students used AR technology to combine textbook content with biodiversity and sustainable development in their area. Their research showed that there were added learning benefits through the authentic experience in which the learning activity took place.

To raise students’ awareness of climate change issues, Wang et al. [40] introduced a location-based augmented-reality (AR) app. The AR game is a story centered around a “Personalized Environmental Assistance Robot” called PEAR through which users try to save the Earth from an environmental disaster. The findings from the application’s evaluation showed that the educational activity significantly improved the participants’ knowledge of sustainability and climate change issues and encouraged the adoption of sustainable attitudes. The study demonstrated that appropriately designed augmented-reality applications promote the transmission of knowledge and sustainable attitudes and behaviors.

The study conducted by Shakirova et al. [41] focuses on assessing the impact of augmented reality (AR) on the development of environmental literacy, motivation, and cognitive load among middle school students. According to the research study’s findings, the integration of immersive technologies (AR) in education enhances and develops learners’ environmental knowledge and skills.

Aiming to enhance marine ecological literacy, the study conducted by Aguayo and Eames [42] explores the design and development of a mixed-reality application used in a marine education center in Aotearoa New Zealand. The study’s findings show that the application’s utilization has contributed to enhancing understanding of the complex science of marine conservation, fostering environmental awareness, and encouraging users to recognize the value of natural heritage through the development of knowledge and the adoption of sustainable attitudes and behaviors.

The authors of [43] introduce a mixed-reality simulation that enables users to investigate the Baltic Sea habitat through a virtual underwater environment. The research findings of this study support the effectiveness of the simulation, which provides an authentic representation of the habitat and enhances the learning experience for users.

The study conducted by Rambach et al. [44] addresses the findings of research related to AR/VR/MR applications that focus on natural heritage and environmental conservation. In accordance with the research data, these applications contribute to the protection and preservation of the environment, raise awareness among their users, and promote ecological consciousness. According to the authors, the number of scientific publications examining AR/VR/MR applications with ecological content is limited, amounting to 28 relevant studies.

Frajberg et al. [45] presented the development process of a mobile AR (PeakLens) application, which combines Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) data to provide an enriched and interactive user experience when exploring mountainous areas. The AR app analyzed the sensor readings (GPS position, orientation and movement of the phone, and camera) and provided the user with an enriched view on the camera screen with additional information about biodiversity, snow cover analysis, water availability prediction, and plant disease monitoring.

The study by Nim et al. [46] presents human interventions on a significant and threatened coral reef in Australia, utilizing an engaging interactive mixed-reality visualization.

By integrating ecological, analytical, and procedural modeling with virtual reality, the study by Huang et al. [47] discusses a VR application that enables users to interact within a forest located in Northern Wisconsin, United States, and to perceive the impacts of climate change in the context of various climatic scenarios.

The research conducted by Markowitz et al. [48] investigates the application of virtual reality (VR) as an educational medium for conveying the effects of climate change, particularly ocean acidification, and focuses on two controlled laboratory experiments and two field investigations. Over 270 participants experienced an immersive underwater world designed to highlight the effects of climate change on the increasing acidity of ocean water. The observations made by the authors indicate that the individuals involved in the activity acquired knowledge which subsequently increased their interest in the field of climate science. The findings of their study highlight the effectiveness of virtual reality in enhancing environmental education, raising awareness, and supporting the quest for information regarding contemporary social issues, such as climate change.

In the study by Tzortzoglou et al. [49], the authors presented the development of an augmented-reality application, “EcoAegean”, created with the TaleBlazer platform, which aimed at raising student awareness of the sustainable management and protection of the marine and coastal ecosystems of Rhodes. Students followed different paths depending on their various roles (i.e., marine biologist and journalist) and proposed solutions to improve their place’s quality of life and development. The application “EcoAegean” provided students with opportunities for political and social awareness, informing them about the existing environmental problems in their area and challenging them to find solutions to these problems.

The authors of study [50] conducted a systematic analysis of 20 articles related to the application of augmented reality in environmental education. They categorized the benefits of AR for the specific field into four distinct groups: (a) contribution to student learning, (b) emotional outcomes, (c) interaction, and (d) additional advantages and benefits, including self-regulation skills and spatial visualization skills.

Ιn their study, Kleftodimos et al. [6] present two educational applications of augmented reality that are based on location and integrate gamification and narrative elements to provide knowledge regarding cultural and natural heritage concerning a prehistoric lake settlement, leveraging the ΤaleΒlazer platform. Their study aims to offer insights and guidance to educators seeking to develop applications that transform educational visits to archaeological sites and museums into engaging augmented-reality experiences. Results from the assessment indicate that the applications achieved favorable ratings in aspects such as ease of use, student contentment, and perceived educational effectiveness.

The study by Garzón and Acevedo [51] involved a meta-analysis of 64 quantitative research papers released in leading journals during the period from 2010 to 2018. The main aim of the research was to integrate results from various independent studies to assess the impact of AR systems on student learning outcomes. The study indicated that augmented reality (AR) is primarily applied in the instruction of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, highlighting that the most commonly mentioned benefits of AR in education include enhanced learning outcomes and increased motivation. Furthermore, the study conducts a comparison of AR applications, utilized as an educational resource, and other educational resources and methods, including multimedia resources, traditional lectures, and conventional teaching tools. According to the results of this comparison, the educational gains are maximized when the intervention features AR resources.

Regarding indoor spaces, various methods are encountered in the scientific literature for developing AR applications capable of tracking users’ positions in indoor environments where GPS signals are weak or unavailable. Indoor positioning can be achieved through a range of technologies, including radio-based, optical, magnetic, and acoustic systems. Among these, iBeacon technology is a widely supported hardware solution in authoring tools used for creating location-based indoor AR experiences. Several museums have adopted AR applications based on iBeacons to replace traditional audio tours, enhancing the visitor experience through the use of personal mobile devices.

For example, Tsai et al. [52] developed a museum tour guide application that combines AR technology with beacon-based positioning. The app was specifically designed for the Formosa Plastics Group Museum at Chang Gung University and offers real-time informational guidance along with a range of educational and entertainment features. The researchers assessed the system’s usability using a mobile-specific heuristic evaluation checklist. Findings indicated that the application met usability standards and could enhance the overall visitor experience.

Furthermore, other innovative methods are also encountered in the recent literature. For example, Ahn and Han [53] introduced an innovative AR exhibition system that integrates augmented reality with indoor positioning technologies. The system autonomously detects the exhibition hall in which the user is present, generates a corresponding AR object, and presents it to the user. For indoor positioning, the authors employed a combination of Wi-Fi fingerprinting and a sensor fusion framework.

3. Related Educational Program

“Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” is the title of a learning activity developed by the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria, which is implemented within the framework of the environmental education programme “The Routes of Water—The Lake of Kastoria”. “The Routes of Water—The Lake of Kastoria” is an educational initiative aimed at students in both primary and secondary education. The environmental education programme can be offered as a single-day or three-day experience, and its primary objectives are the experiential approach to the lake ecosystem of Kastoria and the highlighting of the functions and values inherent in wetland ecosystems. Key concepts of the program encompass wetlands and their respective watersheds, the conditions under which they form and evolve naturally, their biotic and abiotic parameters, the interactions and relationships that arise between them, the ecosystem services they provide, the factors contributing to wetland degradation, management practices aimed at their conservation and restoration, and the national and international treaties aimed at their protection.

The educational activity titled “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” is conducted in the indoor spaces of the Kastoria Aquarium (Figure 3), which hosts a wide range of fish and other organisms, such as crustaceans, amphibians, and reptiles. These species survive and reproduce in the lakes and rivers of Greece and the Balkans, encompassing indigenous, endemic, and non-native forms. The Aquarium of Kastoria was inaugurated in 2012 by the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew and is co-located with the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre of Kastoria.

The design and development of the educational activity “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” are directed towards the attainment of the following objectives:

• Enhancing and deepening the experiences and knowledge that students gain from their visit to the Aquarium of Kastoria;
• Strengthening students’ active and cooperative involvement in the learning process;
• Development of cognitive interest in freshwater life;
• Promotion of awareness-raising for taking action towards protecting aquatic ecosystems and restoring their ecological integrity.

The educational initiative “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” is in accordance with Directive 1999/22/EC established by the Council of the European Union, which pertains to the conservation of wild animals in zoological institutions. This directive is designed to protect wildlife, ensure the preservation of biodiversity, and enhance public education and scientific research by strengthening the role of zoos in fulfilling these aims (Directive 1999/22/EC). Focusing on the educational aspect of wildlife display structures, the European Directive emphasizes the enhancement of public education and awareness regarding biodiversity conservation, primarily through the dissemination of information related to the exhibited species and their natural habitats.

The process of implementing the educational initiative consists of the following stages (Educational Program flow):

• Introduction and Conceptual Mapping: The objective of this section is to introduce the educational activity, record the pre-existing views and knowledge of students regarding organisms in aquariums through the employment of conceptual mapping techniques, and conduct a diagnostic assessment designed to examine the students’ previous perceptions.
• Guided Tour of the Aquarium: Upon entering the aquarium, students are informed about the diverse organisms that are part of the aquarium’s collection, as presented by the aquarium personnel.
• Demonstration of Application Operation: Presentation of the interactive digital application and its mode of operation.
• Interactive Application: The students are organized into teams to navigate the aquarium’s environment and observe the distinctive features of the organisms it houses, utilizing the digital application for assistance and guidance.
• Interactive Self-reflection and Feedback Activity: Participation of students in a self-reflection and feedback activity through a multiple-choice quiz, which is enhanced with gamification aspects (time constraint, lives, bonus incentives).
• Conceptual Mapping—Evaluation: The process includes the restructuring, rectification, and supplementation of the initial semi-structured conceptual map, which reveals and highlights students’ misconceptions and prior errors. Formative assessment involves a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the students’ successive maps, and illustrates conceptual transformations with the aim of conducting a final evaluation of the educational activity concerning student performance.
• Program Assessment: The assessment of the program is conducted using a properly formatted questionnaire that captures the observations of both students and the accompanying educational staff.

Acknowledging the potential offered by new technologies, particularly the use of wireless portable devices to promote active and self-regulated learning, and aiming to enrich educational activities with additional learning experiences [17,54], students’ exploration of the Aquarium of Kastoria is guided by the utilization of an interactive digital augmented-reality application installed on tablets of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre of Kastoria.

4. Materials and Methods

For the development of the interactive digital augmented-reality application and the accompanying activity, the following stages, according to the Waterfall process model [20,21,55] (Figure 4), were followed: Requirements Analysis, Design—Coding, Testing, Operation and Maintenance.

In the first stage, a brainstorming method was applied among the members of the pedagogical team of E.S.E.C. Kastoria in order to determine the design prerequisites and the aim of the application, as well as other objectives related to the learning process (skills acquired, cognitive gains, etc.). The first stage also included an epistemological approach and conceptual analysis with consultation involving the aquarium staff (ichthyologists, guides, conservators). Various issues were discussed, such as extensions and interconnections of concepts and activities, multiple representations and approaches of the subject, anticipation of difficulties that students would face, and possible teaching difficulties during the implementation of the educational program. The exact content of the application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” (texts, photos, questions and answers, feedback texts, reflection activities) was determined. The content of the interactive reflection and evaluation activity after the visit to the aquarium was also determined.

In the second stage, the architecture of the application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” was initially discussed and then designed by the members of the pedagogical team of E.S.E.C. Kastoria and the scientific staff of the laboratory of Digital Media and Strategic Communication, Department of Communication and Digital Media, University of Western Macedonia.

For the development of the augmented-reality digital application, TaleBlazer, an open-source web platform, accessible at http://taleblazer.org/ (accessed on 1 March 2025), was utilized. TaleBlazer was developed by the Scheller Teacher Education Program (STEP) Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and allows the design and development of augmented- or mixed-reality applications [56,57] for outdoor and indoor spaces (e.g., in museums, aquariums, botanical gardens, open-air museums, natural ecosystems, or city environments). The utilization of digital applications developed in TaleBlazer requires the use of wireless mobile devices (smartphones and tablets) with an Android operating system (version 10.0 or later) or iOS (version 12.0 or later). For indoor spaces where the GPS signal is weak or totally absent, Taleblazer provides three alternative techniques for developing applications: Password-Protected Agents, Clue Codes, and iBeacons. The Password-Protected Agents solution was preferred, which allowed players to search in a predetermined order for passwords placed in specific locations inside the aquarium.

With the help of Adobe Photoshop, a custom map was created, which depicts the floor plan of the interior of the aquarium, as well as the necessary photos, buttons, banners, etc. The final design of the navigation menu of the digital application included a navigation map, user assistance (FAQ), recording of navigational history, and user score. The application’s programming took place in Taleblazer’s visual block-based programming environment. For the reflection and evaluation activity, entitled “Fish and Organisms of the Aquarium of Kastoria”, a timed multiple-choice quiz, with gamification features (i.e., lives and bonuses) was created, which was developed using the Wordwall online platform: https://wordwall.net/ (accessed on 1 March 2025).

The third stage included testing the application for possible design or logical errors. The application was run several times in the interior space of the aquarium in order to identify design failures and errors in the code. The feedback activity “Fish and Organisms of the Aquarium of Kastoria” was tested on interactive whiteboards/screens.

In the last stage, the application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” was executed and tested by a sample of pilot users (members of the pedagogical team of E.S.E.C. Kastoria and staff of the aquarium of Kastoria) in order to obtain evaluation and feedback related to its content, design, and functionality. The pilot users’ comments were taken into account, and, where appropriate, necessary changes and corrections were made (e.g., the possibility for participants to skip some questions negligently was excluded, and the application does not move to the next stage if participants do not answer). Considering the architecture and the particularities of the aquarium’s interior space, the screen’s brightness levels, the font size of the text, and the sound levels were adjusted accordingly. At the same time, different versions of the digital application were created with different starting points of the predetermined route in order to avoid, as much as possible, the overcrowding of student groups at the same points/stops.

The final tests of the application showed that it was acceptable in terms of suitability, accuracy, ease of use, learnability, operability, resource utilization, response time, and recovery time after system failure. Finally, the interactive reflection/assessment activity “Fish and Organisms of the Aquarium of Kastoria” was performed and tested on interactive screens, with the results indicating that the initial educational, cognitive, and learning objectives had been achieved to a large extent.

For the evaluation of the application, a questionnaire was constructed based on the existing relevant literature [3,58,59,60,61,62]. The questionnaire included demographic data, exploratory questions related to the organization of educational activity, and multiple-choice questions using a 5-point Likert scale associated with the digital application. The questions about the digital application were grouped into five categories: challenge, ease of use, knowledge-related usefulness, interaction and cooperation, and intention to reuse. The questionnaire is presented in Appendix A, while details of the evaluation process are presented in Section 7.

One hundred and forty-eight (148) primary and secondary education students participated in the evaluation. The questionnaire data were analyzed using SPSS, following a series of steps in order to achieve the research objectives: reliability testing and descriptive statistical analysis, normality testing and correlations analysis, and multiple regression analysis. To investigate the correlations between the categories and their interaction, a conceptual framework with hypothetical correlations (H) between the five categories was constructed. A detailed presentation of the results of the evaluation is provided in Section 8.

5. Software Used to Create the Application

An open-source web platform, TaleBlazer, was selected and utilized to develop the digital application instead of other possible options including ARkit, Vuforia, and similar technologies. The selection of the Taleblazer platform was based on certain criteria, such as low system requirements, user-friendly development environment, execution speed, compatibility with popular mobile platforms (iOS, Android), a familiar block-based programming environment that is similar to Scratch, testing and debugging capabilities, compatibility with hardware and the ability to run in real-time, and availability of documentation and online resources.

An important consideration in the selection of this platform was that its programming environment is user-friendly and does not demand specialized programming expertise, thus rendering it simple and approachable for educators of all disciplines. Another benefit of the approach (using Taleblazer 3.5.0 and password-protected agents) is that it does not require special hardware such as beacons or other indoor position tracking systems. Our research aims to inspire and support educators in utilizing analogous AR technologies, applying them within their schools to create educational programs with either similar or diverse topics in collaboration with their students. Additionally, other factors were considered for the selection related to the specific enclosed space of the aquarium, such as the low lighting in the area, which complicates the reading of AR indicators via camera, lack of internet access, the necessity for low-cost implementation (purchasing only tablets), and the development of an educational scenario with a specific sequence of interactions among points of interest to achieve the cognitive objectives of the scenario.

The TaleBlazer platform is a free software tool designed to facilitate the creation of interactive augmented-reality location-based mobile device applications. Taleblazer was developed by the Scheller Teacher Education Program (STEP) Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and it is popular for creating educational applications, offering teachers and students the opportunity to develop their own apps and participate in interactive AR games that focus on learning through exploration and storytelling. In addition, the Taleblazer website presents thorough usage guidelines and specific instructions designed for teachers and students (resources for educators: https://taleblazer.org/Support/educators, accessed on 1 March 2025).

Developers can create routes with points of interest (POIs) and design real-world interactions, thus creating unique learning experiences. Through the TaleBlazer platform, user location can be tracked in the following ways:

• Through GPS, which is not recommended in this scenario since the activity is performed in a confined area;
• Through iBeacon technology with low-energy Bluetooth devices that function as beacons, sending signals in a defined format over short distances; however, this solution entails significant costs due to the requirement to buy these beacons;
• Through password-protected agents displayed at real-world locations. This forces the player to visit the real-world location and enter a password that is visible somewhere near the location (e.g., on a sign, sticker, etc.) in order to continue the game. This approach was chosen as the most cost-effective option.

The development environment is accessible through http://taleblazer.org/ (accessed on 1 March 2025). The key elements in the development environment are “Regions (Maps)”, “Agents”, and “Settings”. Through the maps provided by the Google Maps Application Programming Interface (API), the area where the educational game will take place is set at the beginning of the development process. The map of the area can be dynamic or static. The dynamic map requires an internet connection, while the static map does not. A static map is recommended for small areas, as GPS is more accurate in this case.

In our case, due to the lack of GPS signal in indoor spaces, a static map depicting the floor plan of the aquarium’s interior was preferred.

After demarcating the area of the educational game, the “Agents” are defined. “Agents” are the digital content associated with specific locations—points of interest—-and are activated when the user of the digital application “bumps” at these points. In our app, the points of interest correspond to specific tanks in the aquarium and are depicted with red dots on the static map (Figure 5).

The “Agents” (Codes) were programmed to be activated with special passwords (Password-Protected Agents), which were placed on characteristic bright-green signs above the aquarium fish tanks (Figure 6). If the password provided by the user is correct, then that means that the user is in front of the right tank, and digital content is activated.

The programming of “Agents” is carried out with command blocks within a visual block-based programming environment similar to Scratch (Figure 7 and Figure 8).

During the game, users are given points for every correct answer, and at the end of the game, they are rewarded according to the total score they have achieved (Figure 8).

The Agent’s content can be in various multimedia forms such as images, videos, and sounds (Figure 9). For the creation of the application’s audio narration, artificial intelligence tools were utilized, such as Google text-to-speech, and TTS Maker: Free Text-to-Speech (https://ttsmaker.com/, accessed on 1 March 2025) (Figure 10).

Through the “Settings” tab, the developer can activate various menu options that will appear in the user interface (UI) of the application (e.g., Map, Player, History, World, Clue Code, Heads Up, Inventory, Log, etc.) (Figure 11).

At the same time, it is possible to set a password in cases where we want the application to run in tap-to-visit mode (without being at the real location e.g., at the aquarium), as well as further settings related to Bump Behavior, Map Tab, and Location Settings (Figure 12).

Mobile devices that run Taleblazer games must be equipped with GPS-enabled positioning technology. In addition, sufficient storage space is recommended for temporarily storing game images and videos. To install the specific digital application on devices with iOS or Android operating systems, iOS version 12.0 or higher and Android 10.0 or higher are required.

The reflection and evaluation activity, called “Fish and Organisms of the Aquarium of Kastoria”, was created using the Wordwall platform (https://wordwall.net/, accessed on 1 March 2025). A multiple-choice quiz with seventeen questions related to the freshwater fish and fauna present in the Kastoria aquarium was constructed (Figure 13).

6. Description of the AR Application

The location-based augmented-reality digital application, designed for indoor use, which aimed to enhance the learning process of students during their visit to the Aquarium of Kastoria, was developed as mentioned by the educators of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre of Kastoria in collaboration with academic staff of the Digital Media and Strategic Communication Laboratory of the Communication and Digital Media Department at the University of Western Macedonia of Greece.

Aiming to leverage the advantages provided by digital augmented-reality applications in the educational process, the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” was designed with specific aims in focus:

• To constitute an alternative means of enhancing students’ interest and their active participation during the learning activity conducted at the Aquarium of Kastoria;
• To strengthen the experiential dimension of the learning experience through the possibilities and incentives it provides for the continuous interaction of students with the aquarium’s live exhibits and the objects in the digital environment;
• To stimulate positive emotions in students that are often related to their participation in activities that encourage collaboration, especially those facilitated by their favored means of communication and entertainment, including smartphones and tablets;
• To provide students with an attractive means of gathering information about freshwater fish fauna;
• To leverage and advance the digital literacy abilities of the students.

Although the primary target audience of the application is students who take part in the environmental educational programs of the E.S.E.C Kastoria, the digital application provides an educational resource that is accessible to all residents and visitors of Kastoria who are interested in enhancing their knowledge about the organisms exhibited at the aquarium of Kastoria (Figure 14).

In the initial phase of the educational activity “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”, information about the content of the application as well as instructions on how to operate it are provided to the students (Figure 15).

Subsequently, tablet devices that have the augmented reality application installed are provided to student groups. The screens of the digital application feature schematic illustrations of the aquarium’s internal layout (Figure 16a). Red dots mark the successive destination locations, accompanied by usage guidelines in the form of frequently asked questions (Figure 16b).

Students activate the digital content of the application by entering the appropriate password, a number found in selected aquarium tanks (Figure 17a). Subsequently, the student groups are prompted to answer multiple-choice questions concerning the organisms that are housed in the aquarium (Figure 17b). When a wrong password is entered, the application encourages users to adjust their orientation and locate the correct destination by observing their surroundings.

The answers are obtained through observing the organisms and interpreting the relevant informational materials (Figure 18).

For each correct response, student teams are rewarded with points (Figure 19a). Students have the option to read the questions and relevant information displayed on their device screens, or alternatively, they may utilize the audio narration feature (audiobook), which enhances the functionality of the application (Figure 19b). An additional feature of the digital application presented is that it does not require an internet connection for its utilization.

The thematic orientation of the thirty-two multiple-choice questions of the digital application concerns the following:

• The scientific names as well as the common names of the species housed in the aquarium of Kastoria;
• The anatomical, morphological, behavioral, and reproductive characteristics of species (e.g., the size and coloration of organisms, the behavioral patterns they exhibit, the identification of traits with adaptive value for their survival, reproduction, and the reduction of interspecific competition, etc.);
• The geographical distribution of their populations and the identifying characteristics of their habitats;
• The dietary preferences of the various species;
• The polymorphism exhibited by certain species;
• The endemic and invasive alien species, including the competitive dominance of invasive foreign species in relation to native species;
• The potential for utilizing certain organisms as bioindicators, with the aim of assessing the conditions prevailing in their ecosystems;
• The ecological role of fish fauna and its value for human societies;
• The natural and human-induced threats fish face (e.g., habitat degradation or loss, pollution, climate change, illegal hunting, overfishing, the building of dams, introduction of invasive alien species, etc.);
• Functional approaches to maintaining the ecological integrity of water ecosystems and safeguarding their biological population and communities.

The installation of the digital application on wireless portable devices requires the input of the appropriate game code (Figure 20).

Detailed installation instructions for the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” on wireless portable devices can be found on the website of the E.S.E.C. Kastoria (https://kpe-kastor.kas.sch.gr/, accessed on 1 March 2025), particularly on the section created for TaleBlazer applications (https://kpe-kastor.kas.sch.gr/taleblazer/, accessed on 1 March 2025).

7. Evaluation

To date, approximately 600 students have participated in the educational activity and experienced the program. To capture and evaluate their experiences, a purposely designed questionnaire—based on previous literature—was developed to collect quantitative data. The questionnaires were administered only to the most recent 148 students, as the final version, which incorporates the AR application, had not been available earlier.

Questionnaire distribution is still ongoing, with the aim of increasing the sample size. Currently, the questionnaires are provided in printed form, as there is no option for electronic completion. The responses are subsequently digitized for analysis. We aim to collect a sufficient number of responses in the future to enhance the reliability of our research findings.

The structure of the questionnaire consisted of three thematic areas and comprised twenty-five questions in total.

• First thematic unit (four questions): Questions in which students are asked to state the date of participation in the educational activity and to provide certain demographic information (gender, educational level, and age).
• Second thematic unit (four questions): Exploratory questions regarding the sufficiency of educational activity organization, the interest generated by the subject matter, the satisfaction levels of participants, and the implementation or non-implementation of thematically relevant activities in their classrooms.
• Third thematic unit (18 Likert scale questions): The Likert scale questions were rated on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), and they aimed to assess the design and content of the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”. The questions pertained to the following five categories of measurement scales: challenge (five questions), ease of use (four questions), usefulness/knowledge (four questions), interaction/cooperation (two questions), and intention to reuse (three questions).

In particular, the five categories of questions aimed to explore the features of the digital application, which are listed below:

• Challenge: Questions that focused on the level of satisfaction derived from the experience, as well as the emotions felt by users of the application while advancing in the game (including feelings of pride, satisfaction, enthusiasm, and pleasure, etc.) [3,58].
• Ease of use: Questions that explored the user-friendliness of technology, examining how easy, comprehensible, and user-friendly the application is, with or without the support of an expert [3,59,60].
• Usefulness/knowledge: Questions designed to evaluate the usefulness of the digital application for educational purposes, its effectiveness in enhancing users’ knowledge about the species housed in the aquarium, and, more broadly, the fauna of the Kastoria region [3,59,60].
• Interaction/cooperation: Questions that reflected the level of collaboration developed among the students during the experience and the motivations that the digital application provides for user collaboration [3,59,60].
• Intention to reuse: Questions that explored the intention to reuse the same application or to utilize similar applications with either related or different thematic orientations in the future (for example, a game addressing environmental issues, or a leisure game such as a treasure hunt, etc.) [3,59,60].

The design and content of the third section of the questionnaire were partially based on the existing literature, following appropriate adaptations, and included selected items from research instruments developed for particular aims: (a) investigation of the usefulness and ease of use of information technology, along with the acceptance of this technology by its users [59]; (b) determination of the predictive factors influencing engagement with and selection of digital applications [58]; (c) assessment of the level of satisfaction provided by e-learning systems [61]; and (d) highlighting the parameters which enhance the attractiveness of augmented-reality digital applications [62].

8. Evaluation Results

8.1. Demographic Statistics and Educational Activity

Primary data was collected from 148 K-12 students, 75 of whom were boys and 73 of whom were girls (Figure 21a).

Regarding the level of education of the participants in the survey, 73 were primary school students, 47 were junior high school students (first three grades of high school), and 28 were upper high school students (last three grades of high school, called Lyceum in Greece). The age range of primary school students ranged between 8 and 11 years old, junior high school students between 12 and 14 years old, and upper high school students between 15 and 17 years old (Figure 21b).

Regarding the organization of educational activities, 145 students (98%) rated it as “Very good” while only 3 students (2%) rated it as “satisfactory” (Figure 22a).

On the question of whether students’ participation in the educational activity offered satisfaction, 107 students (72%) stated that they “Strongly agree”, 39 students (26%) answered that they “Agree”, and 2 students (2%) chose the answer “Neither agree nor disagree” (Figure 22b).

In addition, the vast majority of students (99%) considered the topic of the educational activity interesting (Figure 23a).

Based on the students’ answers, the organization of the educational activity can be considered successful, while its topic arouses the interest of the participants, with the majority of them expressing satisfaction with the learning experience. It should also be noted that 87% of students stated that the topic was new to them, and they had not been taught anything similar in their class before (Figure 23b).

8.2. Data Analysis and Achievement of Research Objectives

In order to analyze the data and achieve the objectives of the research, a series of steps were followed, which are described below.

8.2.1. Reliability Analysis (α Cronbach) and Descriptive Statistical Analysis

The five categories/scales of measurement of the questionnaire related to the digital application “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” were analyzed for their internal consistency/reliability using SPSS 23.0 with the index “a Cronbach”. Based on the reliability analysis, the categories of challenge (a = 0.749), ease of use (a = 0.723), usefulness/knowledge (a = 0.732), interaction/collaboration (a = 0.697), and intention to reuse (a = 0.721) showed satisfactory internal reliability. All the constructs apart from interaction/collaboration exceeded the acceptable threshold of 0.70. The interaction/collaboration value (a = 0.697) is very close to the 0.70 threshold and indicates that this scale has moderate-to-good reliability, so it was considered acceptable for measuring internal consistency.

Figure 24 displays the average values of the average cumulative scales for the five categories as derived from the sum of the values of the respective questions divided by the number (number) of questions per category.

As presented in Figure 24, challenge, interaction/collaboration, and intention to reuse received the highest scores. The average values in all categories are high (>4), which supports the conclusion that the students had an overall positive experience by participating in the game “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”.

The descriptive statistical values for the five categories mentioned and the questions they include are reflected in

Table 1. Mean scores, standard deviation.

	Mean Scores	Standard Deviation
Challenge	4.54	0.44
I feel proud when I advance with success in the game.	4.51	0.64
It feels rewarding to get to the next level of the game.	4.48	0.58
I feel excited when I answer a question correctly.	4.58	0.69
The game is amusing.	4.68	0.51
I am pleased with the game.	4.43	0.65
Ease of use	4.19	0.56
Familiarizing myself with the game environment demands effort *	3.99	0,84
The game is user-friendly, and familiar in its operation.	4.26	0.79
The interaction with the game is easy, and comprehensible.	4.27	0.74
I need assistance in order to play the game *	4.22	0.64
Usefulness/Knowledge	4.25	0.65
The game stimulates my curiosity regarding the acquisition of new knowledge.	4.23	0.87
Engaging in the game enhances my knowledge of the diverse organisms that live in the aquarium.	4.36	0.88
The game enhances my knowledge about the fauna of Kastoria.	4.24	0.74
The game motivates me to learn more about the fauna of my region.	4.18	0.90
Interaction/collaboration	4.45	0.56
The game presents an opportunity for collaboration.	4.41	0.72
I collaborated with my classmates while I was playing.	4.49	0.63
Intention to reuse	4.44	0.45
I intend to play the same game again with my friends in the near future.	4.32	0.62
I would like to play a similar game in the future at another aquarium.	4.47	0.63
In the future, I would be interested in engaging in a similar game that explores a different subject, for instance, a game that focuses on another natural environment or a recreational activity such as a treasure hunt.	4.53	0.55

* Negative question.

. Responses to negative questions were converted into positive values using SPSS on a five-point Likert scale, ensuring accurate results in the statistical analysis (for example, 1 was changed to 5, 2 to 4, 4 to 2, and 5 to 1, while 3 remained unchanged). The averages presented in Table 1 for the specified negative questions were derived following the aforementioned transformation of the corresponding responses.

From the analysis presented in Table 1 and taking into account that the evaluation scores of the questions were on the 5-point Likert scale (1–5), it follows that the average rating score of all questions was very high (>4). In the ease-of-use category, two questions related to the effort the participants needed to make (M = 3.99, SD = 0.84) and the help they may have needed during the game (M = 4.22, SD = 0.64) received lower scores, probably because they were negative questions, and it is very likely that they confused the participants. From the answers that received the highest average score per category, it is concluded that the students had fun during the game (M = 4.68, SD = 0.51), interacted with ease with their environment (M = 4.27, SD = 0.74), got to know better the organisms housed in the aquarium (M = 4.36, SD = 0.88), collaborated with their classmates (M = 4.49, SD = 0.63), and would like to play a similar game in the future with a different theme (M = 4.53, SD = 0.55).

Observing the average values per category (Figure 27, Table 1), the following conclusions were drawn about the participating students:

• They felt strong feelings of challenge and stated that they were satisfied and happy with the game (M = 4.54, SD = 0.44).
• They rated the app as easy to use, straightforward, and understandable (M = 4.19, SD = 0.56).
• They considered that their participation in the educational activity motivated and helped them acquire knowledge about the organisms housed in the aquarium, but also about the fauna of the broader area in general (M = 4.25, SD = 0.65).
• They collaborated and interacted with each other (M = 4.45, SD = 0.56).
• They stated that they wished to experience the same game again, or a similar one with a different theme in the future (e.g., a game about another natural environment, an entertainment game such as a treasure hunt, etc.) (M = 4.44, SD = 0.45).

8.2.2. Normality Testing and Data Correlations

Checking the values in the five categories with the statistical criteria of Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Shapiro–Wilk (

Table 2. Correlations between constructs.

Relationship	Pearson’s, r (Significance, p)	Strength of Relationship Between Variables
Intention to reuse—Challenge	0.561 (0.000)	Strong
Intention to reuse—Interaction/collaboration	0.472 (0.000)	Moderate
Intention to reuse—Ease of use	0.365 (0.000)	Moderate
Intention to reuse—Usefulness/knowledge	0.348 (0.000)	Moderate
Interaction/collaboration—Ease of use	0.376 (0.000)	Moderate
Interaction/collaboration—Challenge	0.366 (0.000)	Moderate
Interaction/collaboration—Usefulness/knowledge	0.224 (0.006)	Weak
Usefulness/knowledge—Challenge	0.593 (0.000)	Strong
Usefulness/knowledge—Ease of use	0.419 (0.000)	Moderate
Ease of use—Challenge	0.487 (0.000)	Moderate

) showed that the data followed a normal distribution (Sig. > 0.05). Therefore, for the correlation test between the five categories, the Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was chosen. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was calculated to test the effect of challenge, ease of use, usefulness/knowledge, and collaboration on the intention to reuse the digital application. The results are presented in Table 2.

Table 2 shows a strong correlation (p < 0.01) between intention to reuse and challenge (r = 0.561, sig. = 0.000) and a moderate correlation between intention to reuse and interaction/collaboration (r = 0.472, sig. = 0.000), and ease of use (r = 0.365, sig. = 0.000) and usefulness/knowledge (r = 0.348, sig. = 0.000). The interaction/collaboration category is moderately positively correlated to ease of use (r = 0.376, sig. = 0.000) and challenge (r = 0.366, sig. = 0.000) and to a small extent positively correlated to usefulness/knowledge (r = 0.224, sig. = 0.000). A strong positive correlation is also observed between usefulness/knowledge and challenge (r = 0.593, sig. = 0.000), and a moderate one between usefulness/knowledge and ease of use (r = 0.419, sig. = 0.000). Finally, challenge is positively associated with ease of use (r = 0.487, sig. = 0.000).

Comparing the correlation coefficients of the important correlations that emerged, it is concluded that the intention to reuse the digital application or similar application is positively influenced to a large extent by the initial challenge (satisfaction, excitement, pleasure), collaboration, ease of use of the application, and usefulness/knowledge provided.

At the same time, the intention to cooperate is positively influenced to a large extent by ease of use and challenge and to a much lesser extent by the usefulness/knowledge construct. The usefulness/knowledge construct is positively influenced to a very large extent by the ease of use and, to a lesser extent, by the challenge construct. Finally, ease of use is significantly affected by the initial challenge (satisfaction, excitement, pleasure).

8.2.3. Multiple Regression Analysis

In order to explore further the correlations between categories and highlight their interaction, a conceptual framework with hypothetical correlations (H) between the five categories was constructed, as depicted in Figure 25.

To test the hypothetical correlations (H1–H10), three separate multiple regressions and one single regression were performed, as described below.

The first multiple regression analysis was performed to examine the effect of the independent interaction/collaboration (H4), usefulness/knowledge (H2), ease of use (H3), and challenge (H1) variables on the intention to reuse (dependent intentional variable).

Table 3. Model summary (Dependent variable: Intention).

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
1	0.631 *	0.398	0.382	0.35552	23.683	4	143	0.000

* Predictors: (Constant), Interaction/collaboration, Usefulness/knowledge, Ease of use, Challenge.

and

Table 4. Coefficients (Model 1, dependent variable: Intention).

	B 1	t	Sig.	Lower Bound 2	Upper Bound 2
(Constant)	1.200	3.565	0.000	0.535	1.866
Challenge	0.441	4.878	0.000	0.262	0.619
Ease of use	0.034	0.534	0.594	−0.091	0.158
Usefulness/knowledge	0.008	0.139	0.890	−0.108	0.124
Interaction/collaboration	0.240	4.144	0.000	0.126	0.355

¹ Unstandardized coefficient; ² 95.0% Confidence Interval for B.

illustrate the multiple regression analysis and provide information relevant to the model developed to predict the dependent intention variable.

The results listed in Table 3 demonstrate that the model (R = 0.631, R² = 0.398, F(4, 143) = 23.683, p < 0.01) is statistically significant with a strong positive correlation between independent variables and intention. About 39.8% of the variability in the intention variable can be explained by independent variables. The adjusted value R² = 0.382 provides a more accurate estimate of the explanation of variability by taking into account the number of variables in the model. A total of 38.2% of variability can be attributed to independent variables, indicating that independent variables contribute significantly to predicting participants’ intent.

According to the results in Table 4, the unstandardized coefficient of challenge is B = 0.441 (p < 0.01), which is interpreted as, for each unit increase in the challenge and keeping the other variables constant, the intention increases by 0.441 points. The unstandardized coefficient of interaction/collaboration is B = 0.240 (p < 0.01), also indicating a significant positive relationship with intention. In contrast, the ease-of-use (B = 0.034, p = 0.594) and usefulness/knowledge (B = 0.008, p = 0.890) variables had no significant effect on intention.

In conclusion, the challenge and interaction/collaboration variables are important predictors of intention, while ease of use and usefulness/knowledge do not provide statistically significant information about intention.

Table 5. Model summary (Dependent variable: Interaction/collaboration).

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
2	0.432 *	0.186	0.169	0.51131	10.984	3	144	0.000

* Predictors: (Constant), Usefulness/knowledge, Ease of use, Challenge.

and

Table 6. Coefficients (Model 2, dependent variable: Interaction/collaboration).

	B 1	t	Sig	Lower Bound 2	Upper Bound 2
(Constant)	1.961	4.302	0.000	1.060	2.862
Challenge	0.335	2.641	0.009	0.084	0.586
Ease of use	0.268	3.046	0.003	0.094	0.441
Usefulness/knowledge	−0.37	−0.443	0.658	−0.204	0.129

¹ Unstandardized coefficient; ² 95.0% Confidence Interval for B.

illustrate the analysis of the second multiple regression, related to the model developed to predict the dependent interaction/collaboration variable from the independent variables usefulness/knowledge (H6), ease of use (H7), and challenge (H5).

Analysis of the results in Table 5 shows that the usefulness/knowledge, ease-of-use, and challenge variables have a small-to-moderate effect on the dependent interaction/collaboration variable (R = 0.432, R² = 0.186, F(3, 144) = 10.984, p < 0.01), with this model explaining about 18.6% of its variance. The statistical significance of the model (p < 0.01) indicates that these factors are important in understanding their interactions with the dependent variable.

According to the results in Table 6, the challenge (B = 0.335, p = 0.009) and ease-of-use (B = 0.268, p = 0.003) variables have a significant positive relationship with the dependent interaction/collaboration variable with p < 0.01, while the effect of the usefulness/knowledge variable (B = 0.268, p = 0.658) on interaction/collaboration is not statistically significant.

Table 7. Model summary (Dependent variable: Usefulness/knowledge).

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
3	0.611 *	0.373	0.365	0.50301	43.220	2	145	0.000

* Predictors: (Constant), Ease of use, Challenge.

and

Table 8. Coefficients (Model 3, dependent variable: Usefulness/knowledge).

	B 1	t	Sig.	Lower Bound 2	Upper Bound 2
(Constant)	0.105	0.235	0.814	−0.781	0.991
Challenge	0.737	6.771	0.000	0.522	0.952
Ease of use	0.193	2.272	0.010	0.015	0.361

¹ Unstandardized coefficient; ² 95.0% Confidence Interval for B.

illustrate the analysis of the third multiple regression, which concerns the model developed to predict the dependent variable usefulness/knowledge from the independent variables challenge (H9) and ease of use (H8).

The figures in Table 7 show that the model is statistically significant (R = 0.611, R² = 0.373, F(2, 145) = 23.683, p < 0.01) and that about 37.3% of the variability in usefulness/knowledge and intention to reuse can be explained by the independent challenge and ease-of-use variables.

According to the results in Table 8, the challenge variable (B = 0.737, p = 0.000) has a significant positive relationship with dependent usefulness/knowledge with p < 0.01. Also, the ease-of-use variable (B = 0.193, p = 0.015) has a positive relationship with the dependent variable, but is less related to the challenge variable.

Finally,

Table 9. Model summary (Dependent variable: Ease of use).

Model	R	R Square	Adjusted R Square	Std. Error of the Estimate	F Change	df1	df2	Sig. F Change
4	0.487 *	0.237	0.232	0.49028	45.302	1	146	0.000

* Predictors: (Constant), Challenge.

and

Table 10. Coefficients (Model 4, dependent variable: Ease of use).

	B 1	t	Sig.	Lower Bound 2	Upper Bound 2
(Constant)	0.359	3.218	0.002	0.524	2.193
Challenge	0.624	6.731	0.000	0.440	0.807

¹ Unstandardized coefficient; ² 95.0% Confidence Interval for B.

illustrate the analysis of simple regression, related to the model developed to predict the dependent ease-of-use variable from the independent challenge variable (H10).

The results in Table 9 indicate that the model was statistically significant (R = 0.487, R² = 0.237, F(1, 146) = 45.302, p < 0.01) and that about 23.7% of the variability in the ease-of-use variable can be explained by the challenge variable.

From the analysis Table 10 records, it is concluded that the challenge variable has a strong and statistically significant positive effect on the ease-of-use variable (B = 0.624, p = 0.000).

The test results of the hypothetical relationships based on the conceptual framework of Figure 25, as derived from the four regression models, are summarized in

Table 11. Multiple regression results and hypotheses testing.

Hypothesized Relationships	Unstandardized Coefficient	Critical Ratios, t (Significance)
H1: Intention to reuse←Challenge *	0.441	4.878 (0.000)
H2: Intention to reuse←Usefulness/knowledge	0.008	0.139 (0.890)
H3: Intention to reuse←Ease of use	0.034	0.534 (0.594)
H4: Intention to reuse←Interaction/collaboration *	0.240	4.144 (0.000)
H5: Interaction/collaboration←Challenge *	0.335	2.641 (0.009)
H6: Interaction/collaboration←Usefulness/knowledge	−0.37	−0.443 (0.658)
H7: Interaction/collaboration←Ease of use *	0.268	3.046 (0.003)
H8: Usefulness/knowledge←Ease of use *	0.193	2.272 (0.010)
H9: Usefulness/knowledge←Challenge *	0.737	6.771 (0.000)
H10: Ease of use←Challenge *	0.624	6.731 (0.000)

* Decision: Supported.

.

Figure 26 illustrates the hypothetical associations (H) between the five qualified/supported categories based on Table 11.

In the graphical representation of the heat map in Figure 27, relationships that are hypothetically unacceptable are marked in red, whereas acceptable relationships are indicated in light blue.

Figure 27. Graphical heat map of accepted and rejected hypothetical correlations. * Decision: Supported.

Figure 27. Graphical heat map of accepted and rejected hypothetical correlations. * Decision: Supported.

9. Discussion

The present study focuses on the description of an augmented-reality application designed for indoor settings, entitled “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria”, which is utilized within the framework of the homonymous educational activity of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre of Kastoria, and it further discusses notable findings from quantitative research that aimed to evaluate the learning experiences of the participating students.

Based on the research outcomes, the theme and the organization of the learning activity engaged the interest of and satisfied the majority of students. Students found the application both user-friendly and enjoyable. They also acknowledged that the information provided through the application enhanced their understanding of freshwater organisms, and furthermore, they expressed their intention to utilize a similar application with a different thematic focus in the future.

The measurements recorded in Table 11 (Section 8) indicate that the hypotheses (H) analyzing the relationship between the intention to reuse and other constructs are supported, with the exception of those related to usefulness/knowledge (H2) and ease of use (H3). This conclusion demonstrates that challenge (H1) and interaction/collaboration (H4) are significant factors that enhance students’ inclination to reuse the same or a similar application. Nevertheless, students might opt not to utilize the same application again, despite considering it beneficial and easy to navigate.

Additionally, interaction and collaboration appear to be significantly influenced by both the challenge (H5) and ease of use (H7) of the digital application. The presence of challenges can foster teamwork, since students might perceive a need to collaborate in order to address issues effectively. This conclusion highlights the importance of developing applications that are user-friendly and promote active participation, especially in situations where significant challenges exist. Conversely, according to the research results, the factor of usefulness/knowledge (H6) did not have an impact on collaboration, indicating that the ease and coherence of the process are more essential for encouraging collaborative behavior.

Furthermore, usefulness/knowledge is enhanced by simplicity of use (H8). Students tend to perceive a digital application as user-friendly and accessible when its utilization is straightforward and presents challenges. This implies that confronting challenges could result in a greater understanding and recognition of the application’s effectiveness.

Ultimately, challenge (H10) exerts a beneficial and noteworthy influence on ease of use. Students may find their engagement with a digital application to be more straightforward and understandable when they encounter increased challenges.

In conclusion, the findings of the study reveal that challenges that are faced collaboratively are vital for the success of digital learning, and there are opportunities to enhance the application to further support these aspects.

Furthermore, the remarks from 16 educators with different specializations involved with their students in the educational activity “Exploring the Aquarium of Kastoria” are likewise encouraging. To a question in a specialized questionnaire that was completed regarding what they consider to be the most noteworthy benefit of the activity, some of the answers are stated below:

• “The experiential approach to freshwater fish fauna and its functional support through the augmented reality digital application”.
• “The exploratory, discovery-oriented, and collaborative approach for gaining new knowledge”.
• “The educational activity’s thematic focus and structure that requires the observation of live exhibits within the aquarium, the collection of information, the participation in discussions, and the use of technology”.
• “The interactive nature of the digital application and the entertaining way of obtaining knowledge and experiences”.

In response to the question, “Do you believe that your participation in the educational program will assist you in implementing similar programs on related topics at your school?”, 14 out of 16 participants answered “yes, very much”, while 2 responded “yes, to a considerable extent”. This situation motivates us to continue our research by collecting more questionnaires, as one of our indirect objectives is to encourage and inspire teachers to apply these insights in their classrooms, an outcome that appears to be accomplished even with the current limited number of participants.

Corresponding evaluations have been made by the educators of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria, who additionally observe the active participation of all students in every stage of the experiential activity. They further recognize the evident and ongoing desire of the students to successfully complete the series of questions in the digital application, a pursuit that promotes their interaction and collaboration.

It is also acknowledged that the experiential engagement of students with the live exhibits at the Aquarium of Kastoria, combined with the use of digital photographs, targeted questions, and feedback texts, strengthens the educational experience, and positively contributes to the achievement of the educational objectives of the activity. This methodology contributes significantly to the achievement of the educational aims of the activity, stimulates cognitive interest in freshwater ecosystems, and fosters awareness regarding the sustainable management and restoration of wetland ecological integrity.

During the educational activity, the educators of E.S.E.C. Kastoria observed the following:

• Certain groups of students were hastily completing the process with the primary aim of finishing first, without fully understanding the questions posed by the digital application. They provided superficial answers and did not take the time to review the relevant informational materials. It is proposed to conduct a discussion with the students before starting to use the application, to make it clear that there is no time limitation on the educational activity and that an in-depth examination of the informational texts will result in better performance for the student groups. The successful completion of the learning experience is based on the total points gathered, and not on how fast it is completed.
• Within specific groups of participants, there was a noticeable deficiency in cooperation, with one student consistently holding the portable device, reduced involvement or active participation from certain members, and a lack of role interchange, including roles like operator, reader, and recorder. It is recommended that participants rotate roles at each stage of the process. Additionally, it is suggested that the educators of the E.S.E.C. of Kastoria support the student groups by taking on the roles of mediators, facilitators, and inspirers, thereby promoting a collaborative spirit and ensuring the attainment of the intended educational outcomes.
• The sound description option provided by the digital application generates noise disturbance and confusion among groups located at adjacent points of interest. In the mentioned cases, it is recommended to reduce the volume or even turn it off, and to choose the option of reading the texts, especially when the number of student groups is increased.
• In certain groups of students, particularly those in primary education, difficulties were observed in the “reading” and interpretation of the virtual map depicting the layout of the aquarium. In these instances, the orientation of the students within the actual space of the aquarium and the identification of the proposed stopping locations was often problematic and not successful. Before initiating the educational activity, it is advisable to showcase in more detail the functionality of the digital application and to clarify how to effectively use the virtual map (such as entry point, exit point, roundabout, tank colors, lake and river simulation areas, etc.) to the students by the educators of the E.S.E.C. of Kastoria. Continuous assistance for the student groups by the educators of the E.S.E.C. of Kastoria is further suggested.

The integration of technology in education offers valuable prospects for its enhancement, but it requires ongoing review and adaptation to meet the needs of students. Future research may concentrate on enhancing the usability features of the application, as well as gaining a deeper understanding of the factors that motivate students to reuse technological educational tools.

10. Limitations and Future Work

The use of augmented-reality applications enhances educational opportunities related to natural heritage and fosters a more engaging and interactive learning experience in indoor environments, such as aquariums. Evaluating and utilizing the feedback provided by students and visitors is essential for the ongoing development and improvement of the application.

The findings of Garzón and Acevedo [47] indicate that the role of augmented reality (AR) in enhancing students’ learning outcomes should be approached with careful consideration. Despite the seemingly positive results of our research, it is crucial to recognize that findings from individual studies may fluctuate due to numerous factors such as the non-implementation of a control treatment in our case, the learning context, the type of learner, the subject area, the instructional approach, the intervention duration, attitudes towards emerging technologies, and other elements of teaching design. Therefore, even though our results demonstrate that augmented aeality (AR) has beneficial effects on education under particular conditions, it is necessary to continue the research while bearing in mind more factors that may affect the learning process.

In particular, we aim to create similar AR applications featuring customized content according to the participants’ age. The following are worth mentioning:

Collecting additional questionnaires will strengthen our study and contribute to more reliable and accurate results, as the current sample (N = 148) is considered limited. The high level of enthusiasm expressed by most participating students regarding the AR application may be attributed to its novelty, offering a unique experience that differs from their typical classroom activities and occurs only once, without repetition. While this novelty can be seen as an advantage, contributing to the smooth and engaging implementation of the educational scenario, it may also present a limitation. If students’ responses are influenced primarily by the novelty effect, rather than the actual educational value, this could lead to biased evaluation results and compromise the validity of the findings.

This AR application has been specifically created for exclusive use inside the Kastoria Aquarium. We intend to develop a similar AR application for another indoor natural attraction, specifically a cave located in the Kastoria region known as “The Dragon’s Cave”, integrating it into a corresponding environmental program of the Environment and Sustainability Education Centre (E.S.E.C.) of Kastoria. This approach would enhance our research by providing more comparable and reliable results, particularly for low-light indoor environments without GPS.

Our ultimate goal is to expand and enhance the augmented-reality (AR) application into mixed reality (MR) by incorporating additional virtual-reality (VR) activities using virtual-reality glasses at specific points during the tour.