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Article

Satureja montana L. Cultivated under Polypropylene Woven Fabric on Clay-Textured Soil in Dry Farming Conditions

by
Snežana Mrđan
1,
Tatjana Marković
1,*,
Tihomir Predić
2,
Ana Dragumilo
1,
Vladimir Filipović
1,
Željana Prijić
1,
Milan Lukić
1 and
Dragoja Radanović
1
1
Institute for Medicinal Plants Research “Dr Josif Pančić” Belgrade, Tadeuša Košćuška 1, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
2
Department of Agroecology, Agricultural Institute of Republic of Srpska, Knjaza Miloša 17, 78000 Banja Luka, Bosnia and Herzegovina
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Horticulturae 2023, 9(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020147
Submission received: 12 December 2022 / Revised: 12 January 2023 / Accepted: 16 January 2023 / Published: 22 January 2023
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal, Aromatic, Spice Plants: Biodiversity, Phytochemistry, Bioactivity and Their Processing Innovation)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
During a five-year field trial established with Satureja montana L. under polypropylene woven fabric (PPWF) on clay-textured soil in dry farming conditions in South Banat, Serbia, the influence of a single basal application of compost and mineral fertilizers at different planting densities (3.6 and 5 plants m−2) on the yield was investigated. Single-dose fertilization positively influenced the yields of S. montana in both applied fertilization models. In the third production year, the dry herb yield achieved by applying organic fertilizers in dense cultivation (1016 g m−1) was comparable with that obtained in the mineral plot (961 g m−1). Furthermore, the plants were optimally supplied with N, P, and K macronutrients, with equal amounts removed by yield, in both tested fertilization plots. The use of PPWF proved beneficial to cultivated plants in terms of water-use efficiency and weed suppression. However, severe yield loss was observed in the fourth and fifth production years as a result of the extreme rainfall conditions; the excess moisture retained by PPWF applied to heavy clay soil favored the development of soil-borne pathogens. Other mulch materials should be further investigated for the production of S. montana on heavy clay soil.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Winter savory (Satureja montana L.) is a perennial semi-evergreen subshrub with medicinal, spicy, and honey-bearing properties. It belongs to the Lamiaceae family. The plants spontaneously grow in sub-Mediterranean areas in dry, sunny, and rocky habitats [1,2]. The genus Satureja has around 30 species, 9 of which have been recorded in the central and western Balkans; among them, S. montana is considered the most economically important species [3]. The leaves, flowers, and stems are used to make herbal tea and to cure numerous diseases. It is also regarded as a culinary herb due to the distinctive flavor of its leaves [1,4]. The essential oil (EO) of Satureja is rich in phytochemicals such as carvacrol, thymol, β-caryophyllene, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, and linalool, which have strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiviral, antispasmodic, and antidiarrheal activities [5,6,7,8].
Since the natural resources of this medicinal species are being exhausted due to irrational exploitation and increasing demand for its raw plant material [8], it is crucial to start cultivating S. montana over a larger area. The production of seedlings is the first step in the cultivation process. Seedlings require special attention and numerous protective measures in the first two years after planting in the field, particularly against weeds, which inhibit growth at the early stage of crop development by competing with the crop for water, nutrients, light, and space below and above ground [9]. Weed control is a major concern, especially for perennial medicinal plant species. Alternative weed management approaches are preferred to the use of herbicides. Mulching is a physical weed-control method that improves agricultural conditions through soil-moisture conservation, by altering soil temperature, and by positively affecting microorganism activity [10,11,12,13]. Although the use of mulch is an investment, it has been demonstrated to be justified and to have long-term effectives, taking into account the reduction in labor force input, which is often becoming increasingly expensive and difficult to obtain, and the elimination of pesticide application [14,15]. Furthermore, mulch use is recognized as an effective crop-production cultivation strategy used in the face of climate-change-related extreme weather conditions (increasing air temperatures, relatively little precipitation, and heavy rainfalls) [16,17]. Polypropylene woven fabric (PPWF) is known for its ability to conserve moisture and to prevent weed growth, and it has an advantage over black plastic mulch in that it is permeable to air and water and does not disintegrate when exposed to sunlight [18,19,20]. Though the use of mulch has many advantages, some studies suggest limitations involving excess moisture conservation underneath the mulch, resulting in restricted oxygen in the root zone on poorly drained soils and creating an environment conducive to the development of diseases and pests [11,21,22].
Most studies on S. montana primarily focused on the secondary metabolites and biochemical activity of its raw material, but only a few of them addressed proper growing conditions [23]. Certain agricultural practices, such as the amount and type of fertilizer used, as well as soil properties, have an impact on both the yield and quality. Mulch application on heavy soils has previously been studied on grain [24,25,26] and vegetable crops [27,28,29] but, to the best of our knowledge, never on S. montana. In heavy soils, clay minerals absorb water molecules and expand in wet conditions, whereas soil shrinkage occurs in dry conditions, resulting in vertical cracking. Water percolates fast through crack networks after rain or irrigation and is then lost at the root zone in deeper subsoil. Consequently, cracks in the soil profile impair the development and distribution of roots, causing yield loss [30,31]. Ameliorative strategies reported in studies for improving clay soil physico-mechanical properties involve applying river sand and organic matter before plowing [32,33]. In some studies, it has been reported that the application of mulch in heavy soils can alter some soil properties, resulting in improved crop productivity [26,34]. In addition, the clay fraction forms the bulk of the colloidal system of the soil, which is responsible for the adsorption of ions and the storage of plant nutrients in the soil in an exchangeable form available to plants. This makes clay one of the most important factors in soil fertility [35].
With a cultivation trial set up on heavy clay soil under PPWF, which does not allow for annual soil tillage, the goal of this study was to discover the advantages and disadvantages of this mulch applied in the dry farming cultivation of S. montana. The first two production years showed satisfactory preliminary data with regard to the plants’ development [36]. In the following three production years of S. montana, the influence of the crop densities (3.6 and 5 plants m−2) and applied fertilization models (mineral and organic) on the yield was further estimated, focusing on the sufficiency of a single basal fertilization applied prior to PPWF set-up. This study also aimed to resolve whether mineral fertilizers might be replaced by organic fertilizers to produce satisfactory yields.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Locality

A field trial was established in Pančevo (44°52′20.0″ N; 20°42′04.7″ E), South Banat, Republic of Serbia. This location has a moderate continental climate, characterized by the local southeasterly prevailing wind “Košava” [37]. The average annual temperature is around 11 °C, with summer temperatures ranging from 21 °C to 23 °C and winter temperatures hovering around −2 °C [38]. The average annual precipitation ranges from 580 to 620 mm, with a rainy season in early summer (May and June) and periods with little precipitation (November and March) [39]. The temperatures and precipitation during the five years of the experiment are presented in Figure 1.
According to the calculated five-year average in the vegetation period of the trial duration, from 2016 to 2020, the monthly average precipitations in April, May, June, July, August, and September were 51.5, 86.3, 97.7, 74.3, 48.5, and 35.0 mm, respectively, whereas the monthly average temperatures were 14.2, 17.5, 22.1, 23.2, 23.7, and 18.7 °C, respectively.
The soil type was a variety of Chernozem (leached gleyed), characterized by a less favorable mechanical composition (high clay content in the soil, >42%). Its main properties are given in Table 1.

2.2. Field Experiment

The field trial was established on 28 May 2016 from experimental fields in Pančevo, South Banat, Serbia. Over a five-year period, the yield of S. montana was studied in response to different organic and mineral fertilization models, as well as different crop spacings (70 × 40 and 50 × 40 cm, representing crop densities of 3.6 and 5 plants m−2, respectively).
The fertilizers were applied prior to the soil being tilled; the mineral fertilizer was applied in a single dose of 100 kg ha−1 of N, 120 kg ha−1 of P2O5, and 270 kg ha−1 of K2O, while the organic fertilizer was compost produced in the Production Unit of the Institute for Medicinal Plant Research. The compost had a total content of NPK = 1.4:0.5:1.4% and was applied in a single dose of 20 t ha−1, resulting in calculated nutrient values of 280 kg ha−1 of N, 100 kg ha−1 of P2O5, and 270 kg ha−1 of K2O. Following the fertilizer treatment, 1 mm thick polypropylene woven fabric (PPWF) from GINEGAR Plastic Products Ltd., Migdal HaEmek, Israel, was spread over the subsequently trenched soil and one-year old nursery plants were transplanted.
In the spring of the 2nd year, the mineral plot received additional fertilization with AN (34% N) at a dose of 200 kg ha−1, while the organic plot received additional fertilization with the liquid organic fertilizer BioGrow (NPK 4:6:3) from Biobizz Worldwide SL, Legizamon, Spain, at a dose of 5 L ha−1.
The experimental design was a two-factor block design with four replications. The plots were arranged according to the applied fertilizers, and each fertilization plot had two different crop density patterns. The size of a single plot was 17.1 m2 (3.8 m × 4.5 m). There were four rows (replications), and each one was composed of nine plants. The independent variables were fertilizers (levels: mineral and organic) and crop density (levels: 3.6 and 5 plants m−2), affecting the dependent variable, the crop yield [36].

2.3. Field Measurements

The number of adopted plants was counted prior to harvest in the 1st year, and adaptation was expressed in percentages (AP%). With regard to disease occurrence, the infected plant parts were sampled, with microscopic observations being made in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th production years by relying on the available literature for microorganism identification [40,41]. The disease severity was assessed in each experimental unit, and the numbers of healthy vs. diseased plants were recorded. Prior to harvest in subsequent production years, the number of live plants per treatment was counted and expressed as a percentage of the initial crop density. Each year, plants were harvested at the stage of flowering. The first stage of flowering in the 1st year occurred in late October (28 October 2016), while in the following production years, flowering occurred earlier, with harvests performed between 15 September and 2 October. For each plot, the dry biomass of each plant was measured (yield per single plant) and also calculated and presented as a yield per unit area (yield m−2).

2.4. Analyses of NPK Macronutrients in Aboveground Plant Biomass

After the harvest, the air-dried plant material was milled (M-20, IKA Universal mill, IKA®-Werke GmbH & Co. KG, Staufen, Germany) and stored for chemical analysis. An analysis of the mineral elements was performed after the dry ashing procedure for organic matter destruction. Total nitrogen (N) in the aboveground plant part was determined by alkaline distillation after the standard Kjeldahl digestion procedure. The dry plant material was subjected to wet acid digestion (conc. H2SO4 + H2O2 + 450 °C) for the P and K analyses. Phosphorus (expressed as P%) was determined using the vanadate-molybdate method (UV-visible spectrophotometer, Helios Alpha, Thermo Spectronic, PROFCONTROL GmbH, Schönwalde-Glien, Germany). Potassium (expressed as K%) was determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometry using the flame technique (AAS Thermo E.C.—SOLAR S4) [42]. The levels of major macronutrients removed from the soil by aboveground biomass (g m−1) were calculated using the data on plant dry biomass yields obtained by the end of the 3rd, 4th, and 5th vegetation seasons and the data on their concentrations in aboveground plant biomass.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The data obtained in this study were statistically processed by a two-way factorial analysis of variance (a two-way ANOVA) using the software STATISTICA 7.0. The post hoc Fisher’s least significant difference (LSD) test (p < 0.05) was used to test the differences between treatments.

3. Results

3.1. Crop Density

From planting to harvest in the first production year, 96% and 95% of the total number of plants were observed in the mineral and organic plots, respectively (the initial density, AP%). In the second and third production years, further losses of 8% and 10% occurred in the mineral plot and 5% and 10% occurred in the organic plot, respectively. By the end of the third production year, 86% of the original plants in the mineral and 85% in the organic plot, respectively, were still alive. In the first three years of production, crop density was unaffected by the applied crop densities or fertilizers. However, it rapidly decreased after being severely affected by disease in the fourth and fifth years; the loss was higher in the organic plot, 41% and 57%, respectively, compared to the mineral one, 21% and 34%, respectively, compared to corresponding initial densities, regardless of applied crop densities (Figure 2).

3.2. Yield per Single Plant and Area

In the first production year, neither crop density nor the fertilization model had an effect on yield per single plant (Table 2) or yield per area (Table 3).
In the second production year, the effect of crop density was observed, being the highest in the organic plot of lower density (Table 2), and was different from all other treatments. Both organic plots had higher yields compared to the mineral ones (Table 2). Regarding the yields per area, the highest for all treatments was observed in the organic plot with lower crop density, while in the mineral plot, the highest one was observed at higher crop density (Table 3).
In the third production year, alongside the observed lower individual yield in the higher density of the mineral plot, the highest individual plant yield in the lower density of the mineral plot was comparable to the yield of the plants in the organic plot (Table 2), ultimately resulting in a maximum yield in the higher density of the organic plot (Table 3).
Unfortunately, in the fourth and fifth production years, disease caused a rapid decline in crop density (Figure 2). In the fourth year, the plants in the organic plots produced generally larger individual yields than those in mineral plots (Table 2). The average yields per area in the fertilization models differed, although not by much, as plant loss in the fourth year was likewise higher in the organic model (Figure 2) than it was in the conventional model. The yield per area in the organic plot, however, was much higher at a higher density than it was at a lower one (Table 3). Finally, in the fifth year, with crop density averaging 60% in mineral plots and less than 40% in organic plots compared to the initial ones (Figure 2), the highest yield was observed in the higher-density mineral plot (Table 3).

3.3. Content of NPK Nutrients in Yield and Its Removal from the Soil

The average content of N present in the aboveground plant at the time of harvest during the third, fourth, and fifth production years was in the range 1.32–1.78% (Figure 3). The content of N in the yield of S. montana decreased from the third to the fifth production years. The implemented planting densities (3.6 and 5 plants m−2) had no effect on the level of N in the plants’ biomass. Considering the applied fertilization models, the content of N did not differ in plants produced in organic and mineral plots in the third and fourth years, while in the fifth year, it was higher in plants treated with organic fertilizers than in those treated with mineral fertilizers. Nitrogen removal, by yield, ranged on average from 4.78 to 17.57 g m−1, and it continuously decreased from the third to the fifth years (Figure 4). In general, the removal of N was not affected by the applied fertilizers or planting densities. Even though the N content was higher in plants in the organic plot in the fifth year, the plants in both fertilizer plots removed the same amount of N by the end of the fifth year due to the higher yield in the mineral plot.
The average content of P in plants right before the harvest, from the third to the fifth production years, ranged from 0.30 to 0.47% and was not affected by fertilizers or planting densities (Figure 5). The average P removal by the plant yield ranged from 1.43 to 4.54 g m−1 and was not affected by treatments within the same production year (Figure 6). Though without significance, slightly lower P removal was noticed at MIN × 3.6 plants m−2 due to the lowest recorded P levels in plants. Considering K content in plants observed during the third, fourth, and fifth production years, it was not affected by treatments and ranged from 1.47 to 1.52% (Figure 7). As for K removal by plants, it ranged from 5.05 to 15.43 g m−1, with K removal not depending on applied treatments in the third year, whereas in the fourth year, K removal was higher in the mineral plot and ORG × 5 plants m−2 with similar removal observed in MIN × 5 plants m−2, in the fifth year. Considering that the content of K was uniform in all three years, the strongest influence on its removal was the decreasing yield from the third to the fifth years (Figure 8).
Given that S. montana was cultivated under a mulch film, when calculating the removal of each macronutrient per unit of area, it was assumed that PPWF covered approximately 70% of the total experimental area (10.000 m2), with the remaining area (30%) being the intermediate paths.
The average N removal, by yield, in the third, fourth, and fifth years in the mineral plots was 17.08, 8.41, and 6.11 g m−1, respectively, while in organic plots, it was 16.62, 8.28, and 5.43 g m−1, respectively, regardless of crop density. On 7000 m2, in the third, fifth, and fifth years, it accounted for 120, 59, and 43 kg ha−1 in both fertilization plots, respectively.
The average P removal, by yield, in the third, fourth, and fifth years in the mineral plots was 3.83, 2.42, and 1.94 g m−1, respectively, while in the organic plots, it was 4.33, 2.75, and 1.40 g m−1, respectively, regardless of crop density. On 7000 m2, it accounted for 27, 17, and 14 kg ha−1 in the mineral plots and 30, 19, and 10 kg ha−1 in the organic plots, respectively.
The average K removal, by yield, in the third, fourth, and fifth years in the mineral plots was 14.86, 8.34, and 6.82 g m−1, respectively, while in the organic plots, it was 14.71, 8.29, and 5.33 g m−1, respectively, regardless of crop density. On 7000 m2, it accounted for 104, 58, and 48 kg ha−1 in the mineral plots and 103, 58, and 37 kg ha−1 in the organic plots, respectively.

4. Discussion

4.1. Crop Density

In the first two years of production, the development of plants has proven satisfactory, with a denoted average loss of 11% by the end of the second production year in regard to the total number of planted plants, regardless of the applied treatments. Though the harvest in the first year was performed late, followed by a relatively cold winter without snow cover and very low temperatures (Figure 1), plants successfully overwintered and adapted to the temperate continental climate conditions of the South Banat. Higher-crop-density plants began to close inter-row spaces by the end of the second year, whereas lower-crop-density plants occupied only spaces within the rows [36].
The success of mulch in providing favorable growth conditions for plants depends on the appropriate selection of mulch material, soil physico-chemical properties, and the climatic circumstances in which the plant grows. In a previous study conducted with Arnica montana [43], black and silver polyethylene plastic (PE) mulch resulted in a higher number of flowers per plant, with a positive influence on rosette diameter and plant height compared with the same crop cultivated without mulching. A higher biomass yield was gained with PE mulch as it elevated the soil temperature and preserved soil moisture, thus favoring initial plant growth. On the other hand, due to high air temperatures and drought, a decrease in root yield has been reported in Gentiana lutea L. cultivated under black and silver PE mulch [44].
The positive effect of PPWF in our study was recognized with the securing of unhindered initial growth of plants by suppressing weeds in the first two years of plant production until the full crop closure in the third production year, as the summer period of the second production year was characterized by a lack of precipitation and slightly higher temperatures. Using PPWF in the cultivation of S. montana ensured successful weed management and water efficiency by relying on rainfall for water irrigation throughout the entire duration of crop production in dry farming conditions. Furthermore, allowing gas exchange with PPWF avoided the potentially negative effect of heated air accumulation, as seen in Gentiana lutea cultivated under PE mulch [44]. In an experiment conducted in the cultivation of Mentha piperita L., the use of PPWF proved to be the most effective in weed suppression as compared to many other synthetic mulches [45]. Even though mulch was no longer present from the third to the sixth production years, the weed control achieved by using water–air permeable yet biodegradable film was critical in resulting in high Gentiana root yield in the fifth and sixth production years [44].
Although many studies emphasized the advantages of using mulch in medicinal plant cultivation, a few studies also reported that mulches contribute to the development of soil-borne pathogens. In studies conducted with Thymus vulgaris L. [46,47], plastic mulch was not beneficial to the crop as it promoted the development of soil fungal diseases. Disease occurrence on Nepeta cataria and Hypericum perforatum cultivated under the wool mat was 31% and 46%, respectively, whereas under the oat straw, it was 25% and 11%, respectively [10]. In this study, the number of decayed S. montana plants increased as the crop aged. The first signs of plant decline related to the disease (3.2%) were observed by the end of the second year of production [36]. Afterwards, no significant additional loss was observed in the third production year compared to the previous one, as climate conditions favored plant development with satisfactory sums of temperatures and precipitation, resulting in a yield that reached its maximum. Crop density was equally preserved in both fertilization models, with an average of 86%, regardless of applied densities. Nevertheless, in the fourth and fifth production years, severe loss was observed due to disease. It was noted that segments of branches dry up until the whole plant declines. Symptoms were asymmetrically or randomly distributed in individual plants as well as across a field, particularly in the advanced stages of infection. Noticeable symptoms resembled those caused by some soil-borne pathogens, Verticillium spp., and/or Fusarium spp. [40,41]. Literature data on the diseases and pests of Satureja species scarcely exist. However, wilt, either caused by Verticillium spp. or Fusarium spp., is a disease that may occur during the cultivation of species of the genus Satureja [48,49]. For many crops, economic losses due to soil-borne pathogens are estimated to be 50–75% of the attainable yield [50]. To date, no effective fungicides for the permanent suppression of Verticillium spp. have been made. The most effective method for controlling diseases caused by soil-borne pathogens has proven to be soil fumigation with chloropicrin and methyl bromide. Nevertheless, due to the potential risks to human health and the environment, many countries have banned the use of these compounds [51]. On the other hand, medicinal plants belong to the group of “minor crops”, and a major problem in their cultivation is a lack of registered and available protection preparations in the market. The use of unapproved preparations may result in a law violation as well as a risk to consumer health due to pesticide residues found in herbal material [52]. With all of this in mind, it is easy to understand why the pathogens in our study were so difficult to control once they appeared. Additionally, since the study on S. montana was set up under PPWF and full crop density closure occurred in the third production year, soil fumigation was impossible to implement.
Soil-borne pathogens are more dangerous and infectious in conditions with higher soil moisture and lower soil temperature [49]. Similar findings were confirmed while investigating the pathogenicity of Phytophthora clandestine and Pythium irregulare in Trifolium subterraneum, which cause root infection [53,54]. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that a higher frequency of extreme rain events can saturate the soil, favoring conditions for the development of soil-borne pathogens [55].
In this regard, a significant difference in climatic conditions was observed during the experimental period 2016–2020, which could be explained by the calculated five-year averages of precipitation and temperature shown in Figure 1. In August 2016, an extremely rainy period was recorded, with precipitation being 90% higher than the calculated five-year average, though crop production was not negatively affected. Although a dry summer was observed in 2017, with precipitations being 80% and 30% lower in June and July, respectively, than the calculated five-year average, moisture was conserved under the mulch, which favored crop development. In 2018, except for the low precipitation observed in May, the sums of precipitation and temperatures corresponded to the averages. Nevertheless, an extremely rainy period with lower temperatures was observed in 2019 and 2020 when compared to the calculated five-year averages of precipitation and temperature. Thus, the precipitations in May, June, and July of 2019 were 40%, 20%, and 30% higher, while those in June and July of 2020 were 60% and 20% higher than the calculated five-year average, respectively. Additionally, the temperatures in the indicated periods in 2019 and 2020 were, on average, 1.5 °C and 2.2 °C lower than those of the calculated five-year average, respectively.
There is an assumption that a combination of factors such as PPWF being applied to the soil with high clay content (>42%) and the occurrence of extreme rainfalls contributed to creating favorable conditions (high soil moisture and low soil temperature) for the development of soil-borne pathogens and, thus, the severe plant loss in the fourth and fifth vegetation seasons. Considering the progression of climate change in the future and the appearance of extreme weather conditions, particularly high rainfalls, there is a possibility of reestablishing conditions in the soil that might promote the development of soil-borne pathogens again. In that regard, this should be taken into account when mulching heavy soils.

4.2. Yield

In the first year of production, plants developed uniformly in both fertilized plots, were supplied with enough available nutrients, and were grown in favorable growing conditions, with the applied densities providing them sufficient space for development. PPWF prevented weeds from competing for nutrients and light in the soil and promoted early vegetative growth of the cultivated crops, as observed when investigating the efficiency of two different polypropylene black mulches on the growth of Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lavandula officinalis L., and Thymus vulgaris L. [56].
In the second production year, nutrient availability affected individual plant development in such a way that S. montana plants in the lower-density plots were more supplied than those in higher-density plots, as they competed for nutrients in an equal-sized area. It resulted in larger plants for plots with lower densities, occupying an area larger than 0.2 m2, which was also the amount of space available to the plants in denser formations. In terms of the effect of planting densities, investigations on S. montana L., Satureja sahendica Bornm, and Satureja khuzestanica Jamzad [23,57,58] revealed that plants grew larger in diameter with wider spacing, allowing more branching and lateral growth of the shoots, whereas dense cultivation resulted in higher yields per area. Other studies [59,60,61,62,63,64] discovered that narrower spacing resulted in higher yields per unit area.
In the second production year, though a 15% higher yield in the organic plot was noted, there was no difference in yield per area for higher densities in either fertilizer plots. Even if the difference was not statistically confirmed, the higher yield in the denser organic plot suggested a trend of increasing yields per area in subsequent years. Similar to our results, in the second production year of Satureja mutica cultivated under dry farming conditions [65], treatments involving cattle manure and the highest applied planting density (80,000 plants ha−1) gave the highest dry yield compared to the plot with lower planting densities (40,000 and 26,666 plants ha−1) without any fertilizer. When assuming that mineralization intensifies under mulch due to conserved moisture and optimal temperature for microbial activity, a greater influence of organic fertilization on plant growth over mineral fertilization is observed in the second and third years after fertilizer application [65,66]. Finally, after the plots were closed and full crop density was reached in the third production year, the highest yield (on average, 1016 g m−1) was detected in the denser organic plot compared to the yields in the mineral plots with higher (in average 984 g m−1) and lower (in average 987 g m−1) densities. When calculated on a 7000 m2 area under the crop (mulch area), it accounted for average yields of 7114 kg ha−1 in the higher-density organic plot and 6887 kg ha−1 and 6906 kg ha−1 for the higher- and lower-density mineral plots, respectively. Thus, it leads to the conclusion that a satisfactory level of nutrition in winter savory for maximum yield could be provided with the application of organic fertilizers. There has been a similar study on fertilizer application reported on another species of the Satureja genus. Thus, testing the effects of cow manure (30 t ha−1) and an NPK fertilizer (50:25:25 kg ha−1) on yield in a two-year production of Satureja macrantha C.A.Mey [67] showed that plants treated only with cow manure and with a combination NPK and cow manure gave, on average, 22% and 18%, respectively, higher yield compared to the control (2000 kg ha−1 yield).
Severe yield loss was observed in the fourth and fifth production years, in which the drawbacks of the applied mulch on clay soil in circumstances of high rainfall and low soil temperature were seen. It was assumed that mulch, during months with a higher precipitation rate, retained excess soil moisture and, with poor drainage in clay soil, contributed to increased soil-borne pathogen development. The potential drawbacks of the applied mulch were described in some studies. Hence, the cultivated Origanum majorana L. [68] did not benefit from mulching, since higher yields were gained without mulching (96 kg 100 m−2) than with mulching (80 kg 100 m−2), as plants under the mulch were severely affected by fungal diseases (Alternaria sp. and Botrytis cinerea). Similarly, it was revealed that mulching was not beneficial for Thymus vulgaris L. production [47], because the occurrence of high rainfall and used drip irrigation under PE mulch was attributed to a high incidence of fungal diseases, resulting in the lowest yield (332 kg ha−1) compared to the highest yield (1604 kg ha−1) gained with irrigation and without mulch.

4.3. Content of NPK Nutrients in Herb and Removal, by Yield

The content of the three major plant nutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), in the aboveground plant biomass and their removal from the soil are considered indicators of whether the cultivated plants were properly supplied with the implemented fertilization models in each of the tested planting densities.
Nitrogen (N) is a constituent of a number of organic compounds, such as amino acids, proteins, nucleic acids, and secondary metabolites. Depending on the plant species, organs, and age, the content in plant tissues is in the range of 1–5% (10–50 g kg−1) of total plant dry matter [69]. In our study, observed in dry aerial plant parts, the highest N content, by average, was 1.72%, noted in the third production year, and the average N content decreased by 13% and 16% in the fourth and fifth production years, respectively. The highest average N content of 4% was observed in the first production year of S. macrantha L. [70], which was higher than the highest average N content (1.8%) obtained in the treatment MIN × 3.6 plants m−2 in the third year of our trial. During a two-year production period, a similar N content (3.6%) was discovered in the herb of S. hortensis L. [ [71]. The lower N content present in the plants from our trial when compared to the reported ones could be explained by the difference in the plants’ ages, since a higher N content is usually present in younger plants. After the third production year and with the crop aging, the proportion of woody stems in the structure of the aerial part of S. montana becomes higher.
The achieved plant yield per area being equal in both the mineral and organic plots in the third production year indicates favorable conditions for the N mineralization of the applied organic fertilizer due to optimal moisture and temperature conditions for microbial activity under mulch. In contrast, in the fourth and fifth years, it was assumed that excess moisture conserved under mulch on heavy clay soil during rainy seasons resulted in conditions conducive to reduced N uptake under anaerobic conditions. In that regard, it was confirmed that clay soils impeded N uptake due to higher saturation levels [72]. Nitrogen-deficient plants are often stunted with narrow leaves. Chlorosis, caused by a nitrogen deficiency, commonly develops in older leaves as N is remobilized to younger leaves. In the field, N-deficient crops appear light green or even yellow [69]. S. montana plants in this study were properly supplied with N throughout the study, regardless of treatment, with no signs of N deficiency.
Phosphorus (P) is a structural constituent of nucleic acids, as well as a component of the ATP/ADP system in plant cells. It is also required for carbohydrates to be transported in leaf cells. The most common phosphorus needs for optimal plant growth during the growing season are in the range of 0.3–0.5% (3–5 mg g−1) of total plant dry matter [69]. In our study, the content of P in the aerial part of S. montana was in that exact interval (Figure 4). In the third year, the highest average P content (0.5%) in S. montana plants was achieved in treatment MIN x 5 plants m−2. Other fertilization experiments revealed a lower P content in various Satureja species. For instance, in the two-year production of S. mutica Fisch. & C.A. Mey [73], the highest average P content was 0.24%, while a P content of 0.3% was found in S. macrantha C.A.Mey [70], which corresponds to the lowest P content recorded in the treatment MIN × 3.6 plants m−2 in the third year. In a two-year production of S. macrantha C.A.Mey [67], 0.33% of P was reported in the first year in which the applied mineral fertilizer was reported and 0.38% of P was reported for the combined organic and mineral fertilizer in the second year. When compared to the results in our study, a higher content was determined with the applied mineral fertilizer (0.47% in MIN × 5 plants m−2 in the third year), whereas the average P content in our study, with regard to the applied fertilizers, was 0.42%, which coincides with the P content in S. macrantha C.A.Mey [67] in the second production year.
Plants appear stunted in P deficiency; there is a reduction in leaf number and expansion; the foliage turns dark green or, in severe cases, reddish-purple; the shoot growth rate is inhibited; and the formation of reproductive organs is inhibited. Flower initiation is delayed; the number of flowers decreases; and seed formation is restricted [69]. Plant species that grow on soils very poor in phosphorus are adapted to lower concentrations of P [74]. In our study, a P content of 0.42%, present in the analyzed plant material taken in the third, fourth, and fifth years, is typical of plant P contents on a dry mass basis, indicating that the plants received adequate P supplementation throughout the trial period and that there were no signs of P deficiency.
Potassium (K) is required by plants in approximately the same amounts as nitrogen (N). The main role of K is osmoregulation, which is important for cell extension and stomata movement. Potassium affects the rate of mass flow-driven solute movement within the plant. It is required for enzyme activation, protein synthesis, photosynthesis, carbohydrate transport, and water regulation in plants. The K requirement for optimal plant growth is 2–5% (20–50 g kg−1) of total plant dry matter [69]. K was present in plants at an average of 1.5% in the analyzed plant material taken in the third, fourth, and fifth years. Higher contents of K were observed in other species of the Satureja genus. For example, studies in a two-year cultivation of S. macrantha [67,70] reported highest average K contents of 4.3% and 3.5%, respectively, whereas in a two-year production of S. mutica, the highest average K content was 3.3% [73].
The uptake of K occurs in the K+ form. As potassium forms no organic compounds within the plant, it remains in the ionic K+ form. In the soil, K is much less mobile than N but more mobile than P [69]. In clay soils, K ions can be fixed in the interlamellar spaces of clay minerals, which reduces their availability to plants [75]. Although the trial was set up on soil with high clay content, according to the soil analysis, the amount of K present in the soil was at optimal levels (Table 1). When K levels are low, plants become stunted and develop poor root systems; K transports from mature leaves to younger leaves. Mature leaves become chlorotic and necrotic, which results in leaf shedding as the deficiency continues. Furthermore, it causes other plant disorders such as decreased turgor; decreased cambium growth rate; and disruption of lignification of vascular bundles, which leads to increased lodging in some plants [69]. Despite this, none of these symptoms were observed on S. montana plants throughout the years of cultivation. In addition, although a higher K content was found in other Satureja species, in our study, the level of K in the aboveground part at the time of harvest was found to be at a uniform level of approximately 1.5%. That level did not depend on the applied treatments or the climatic differences of the growing seasons (Figure 1). It could be concluded that the plants were sufficiently supplied with K+ during the entire growing period, and it was assumed that the content of 1.5% K+ in the aboveground part is characteristic for S. montana in the period of full crop development.
The average N, P, and K removal in the third year coincided with the removal of nutrients by the Satureja species dry aerial plant yield reported by Bomme and Nast [76], who also recommended proper dosages of applied fertilizers comparable to those used in this trial, though slightly modified by taking into account soil analysis data. Even though nutrient removal, by yield, decreased dramatically in the fourth and fifth years due to disease-affected yield, it suggested that an appropriate single dose of fertilizer was applied in both the organic and mineral models.

5. Conclusions

According to the obtained results, wider spacing of S. montana resulted in higher yields per plant, whereas narrower spacing resulted in higher yields per unit area. In the third production year, the yield achieved with the application of organic fertilizer during dense cultivation was comparable with the yield obtained in the mineral plot, and that year produced the highest yields. According to the results on macronutrient content, the Satureja plants were properly supplied with N, P, and K during the entire duration of the trial, regardless of the type of applied fertilizer, and without the manifestation of any deficiencies, whereas an equal level of NPK nutrients removed, by yield, in both tested fertilization plots suggested that a single basal fertilization plus a single additional surface fertilization in spring of the second year were applied in an appropriate amount in both fertilization plots.
Based on these findings, it is possible to conclude that, in situations where surface fertilizer application is no longer feasible after mulching, the use of organic fertilizer at high plant density, in an appropriate single dose, could provide satisfactory nutrition levels for a cultivated crop comparable to mineral-fertilizer nutrition levels. This might be encouraging for further organic agriculture applications in medicinal crop production.
In regard to S. montana cultivation on heavy clay soil, PPWF allowed rainwater infiltration and was effective in terms of water-use efficiency and weed suppression. Nevertheless, the occurrence of extreme rainfalls resulted in severe yield loss due to excess moisture preserved under the mulch, creating conditions favorable for the development of soil-borne pathogens. Since extreme rainfalls are anticipated to reappear in the future as a result of climate change, the cultivation of winter savory could be primarily constrained by heavy soil texture. Other mulch materials, such as organic materials for S. montana cultivation on heavy clay soil, should be further explored.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, D.R. and T.M.; methodology, D.R., T.M. and A.D.; software, A.D. and S.M.; validation D.R., T.M. and S.M.; formal analysis, D.R., T.P., A.D., V.F. and S.M.; investigation, D.R., S.M. and T.M.; resources, D.R., T.M., A.D., Ž.P., S.M. and V.F.; data curation, D.R., A.D. and S.M.; writing—original draft preparation, S.M. and D.R.; writing—review and editing, T.M.; visualization, Ž.P. and D.R.; supervision, M.L.; project administration, D.R.; funding acquisition, M.L., D.R. and T.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia, grant: 451-03-68/2022-14/200003.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Climatic conditions during five production years of S. montana L. in Pančevo, South Banat, Serbia.
Figure 1. Climatic conditions during five production years of S. montana L. in Pančevo, South Banat, Serbia.
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Figure 2. Crop density of S. montana prior to harvests in a five-year production period in relation to the initial crop density (%); MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2); higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 2. Crop density of S. montana prior to harvests in a five-year production period in relation to the initial crop density (%); MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2); higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 3. Nitrogen content (N%) in S. montana L yield in relation to fertilization and crop density in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 3. Nitrogen content (N%) in S. montana L yield in relation to fertilization and crop density in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 4. Nitrogen removal (N g m−1), by yield, in relation to crop density and fertilization model in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 4. Nitrogen removal (N g m−1), by yield, in relation to crop density and fertilization model in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 5. Phosphorus content (P%) in S. montana L. yield in relation to fertilization and crop density the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 5. Phosphorus content (P%) in S. montana L. yield in relation to fertilization and crop density the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 6. Phosphorus removal (P g m−1), by yield, with regard to crop density and fertilization models in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 6. Phosphorus removal (P g m−1), by yield, with regard to crop density and fertilization models in the third to fifth production years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 7. Potassium content (K%) in S. montana L. yield in relation to fertilization and crop density in the third to fifth production year; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 7. Potassium content (K%) in S. montana L. yield in relation to fertilization and crop density in the third to fifth production year; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); means ± standard error followed by the same letter in the same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Figure 8. Potassium removal (K g m−1), by yield, with regard to crop density and fertilization models in three experimental years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
Figure 8. Potassium removal (K g m−1), by yield, with regard to crop density and fertilization models in three experimental years; MIN—mineral plot; ORG—organic plot; lower crop density (3.6 plants m−2), higher crop density (5 plants m−2); error bars denote standard error; means followed by the same letter in same year are not significantly different (p < 0.05).
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Table
Table 1. Chemical properties and clay content of the arable soil layer (0–30 cm).
Table 1. Chemical properties and clay content of the arable soil layer (0–30 cm).
Soil TypepHCaCO3
(%)		Humus
(%)		Total N
(%)		Al Method
(mg kg−1)		Clay
Content
(%)
In H2OIn KClP2O5K2O
Chernozem7.115.880.423.510.2417344542.36
Table
Table 2. Average yields of individual S. montana plants in relation to crop density and fertilization model over a five-year production period.
Table 2. Average yields of individual S. montana plants in relation to crop density and fertilization model over a five-year production period.
Fertilization
Model		Crop Density
(plants m−2)		Yields (g plant−1)
1st Year2nd Year3rd Year4th Year5th Year
Mineral5
3.6		72.53 ± 5.19 a*
81.40 ± 10.56 a		151.06 ± 10.82 b
186.00 ± 13.27 ab		242.03 ± 24.44 b
313.77 ± 21.17 a		151.88 ± 20.06 b
204.43 ± 12.98 ab		172.9 ± 8.27 b
187.9 ± 28.66 b
Organic5
3.6		80.95 ± 7.52 a
80.95 ± 12.45 a		178.44 ± 16.62 b
221.94 ± 13.98 a		280.54 ± 19.98 ab
297.74 ± 19.91 ab		230.50 ± 28.55 a
251.73 ± 25.09 a		178.5 ± 23.17 b
274.3 ± 30.97 a
* Values are presented as means ± standard error. Values with the same letter in each column showed no statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Average yields of S. montana per unit area in relation to crop density and fertilization model in a five-year production period.
Table 3. Average yields of S. montana per unit area in relation to crop density and fertilization model in a five-year production period.
Fertilization
Model		Crop Density
(plants m−2)		Yields (g m−2)
1st Year2nd Year3rd Year4th Year5th Year
Mineral5
3.6		300.0 ± 49.41 a*
293.0 ± 37.98 a		755.3 ± 54.11 ab
669.6 ± 47.78 b		983.9 ± 30.26 ab
986.6 ± 34.05 ab		556.3 ± 50.47 ab
557.0 ± 40.15 ab		570.8 ± 43.46 a
342.7 ± 61.16 b
Organic5
3.6		359.4 ± 45.25 a
274.5 ± 50.35 a		892.3 ± 34.26 a
799.0 ± 50.33 ab		1016.3 ± 70.00 a
938.4 ± 44.76 b		634.0 ± 79.06 a
492.1 ± 65.45 b		337.5 ± 82.66 b
367.9 ± 72.49 b
* Values are presented as means ± standard error. Values with the same letter in each column showed no statistically significant difference (p < 0.05).
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MDPI and ACS Style

Mrđan, S.; Marković, T.; Predić, T.; Dragumilo, A.; Filipović, V.; Prijić, Ž.; Lukić, M.; Radanović, D. Satureja montana L. Cultivated under Polypropylene Woven Fabric on Clay-Textured Soil in Dry Farming Conditions. Horticulturae 2023, 9, 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020147

AMA Style

Mrđan S, Marković T, Predić T, Dragumilo A, Filipović V, Prijić Ž, Lukić M, Radanović D. Satureja montana L. Cultivated under Polypropylene Woven Fabric on Clay-Textured Soil in Dry Farming Conditions. Horticulturae. 2023; 9(2):147. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020147

Chicago/Turabian Style

Mrđan, Snežana, Tatjana Marković, Tihomir Predić, Ana Dragumilo, Vladimir Filipović, Željana Prijić, Milan Lukić, and Dragoja Radanović. 2023. "Satureja montana L. Cultivated under Polypropylene Woven Fabric on Clay-Textured Soil in Dry Farming Conditions" Horticulturae 9, no. 2: 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020147

APA Style

Mrđan, S., Marković, T., Predić, T., Dragumilo, A., Filipović, V., Prijić, Ž., Lukić, M., & Radanović, D. (2023). Satureja montana L. Cultivated under Polypropylene Woven Fabric on Clay-Textured Soil in Dry Farming Conditions. Horticulturae, 9(2), 147. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9020147

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