Development of Gluten-Free Functional Bread Adapted to the Nutritional Requirements of Celiac Patients
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Extracts
2.2. Preparation of the Bread
2.3. Physical-Chemical Analysis
2.3.1. Macronutrient Determination
Moisture Determination
Determination of Inorganic Matter
Determination of Total Nitrogen and Protein
Determination of Total Fat
Determination of Dietary Fiber
Determination of Carbohydrates
Determination of the Energy Value
Determination of Folate
2.3.2. Mineral Determination
2.4. Shelf-Life Study
2.4.1. Determination of Antioxidant Capacity
Absobality of Oxygen Radicals (ORAC)
Iron Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
DPPH Technique
ABTS Technique
2.4.2. Microbiological Analysis
2.5. Sensory Analysis
2.6. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Proximal Composition
3.1.1. Macronutrients of Flaxseed and Spinach Powder
3.1.2. Macronutrients of the Samples
3.2. Folate Content
3.3. Minerals
3.4. pH and Color during Different Days of Storage
3.5. Antioxidant Capacity
3.5.1. Characterisation of Preservative Extracts
3.5.2. Antioxidant Capacity during the Shelf-Life Study
3.6. Microbiological Analysis
3.7. Sensory Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AAPH | 2:2′-azobis(2-amidinopropane)-dihydrochloride |
ABTS | 2:2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid |
C | Control |
CBC | Citrus extract |
Com | Commercial |
DPPH | 2:2-difenil-1-picrilhidrazilo |
FA | Folic acid |
FRAP | Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power |
5-FTHF | 5-formyltetrahydrofolate |
GAE | gallic acid equivalents |
HXTS | hydroxytyrosol synthetic |
HXTO | hydroxytyrosol natural origin |
5-MTHF | 5-methyltetrahydrofolate |
OGYE | oxytetracycline-glucose yeast extract |
ORAC | oxygen radical absorbance capacity |
PCA | Plate Count Agar |
RDI | Reference Daily Intakes |
SAX | Strong anion-exchange |
SPSS | Statistical Package for the Social Science |
THF | Tetrahydrofolate |
TPC | Total phenolic content |
TPTZ | 2:4,6-tripyridyl-s-triazine |
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Sample | MixB Schär (g) | Water (mL) | Oil (g) | Dry Yeast (g) | Salt (g) | CBC (mg) | Acerola (mg) | CaCO3 (g) | Freeze-Dried Spinach (g) | Ground Flax (g) | HXT Org. (mg) | HXT Sint. (mg) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | 500 | 400 | 20 | 10 | 5 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
HXTO | 500 | 500 | 20 | 10 | 5 | 160 | 160 | 1.1 | 5 | 40 | 160 | - |
HXTS | 500 | 500 | 20 | 10 | 5 | 160 | 160 | 1.1 | 5 | 40 | - | 160 |
Parameters | Sample | |
---|---|---|
Flaxseed | Spinach Power | |
Proteins | 21.99 ± 0.12 a | 29.36 ± 0.06 b |
Moisture | 5.03 ± 0.09 a | 8.36 ± 0.36 b |
Ash | 6.96 ± 0.03 a | 16.98 ± 0.21 b |
Fat | 40.89 ± 0.74 a | 6.03 ± 0.14 b |
Fiber | 20.85 ± 0.49 a | 32.01 ± 0.69 b |
Carbohydrates | 28.89 ± 0.25 a | 32.36 ± 0.49 b |
Energy | 532.32 ± 3.15 a | 305.01 ± 2.01 b |
Parameters | Sample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Control | Com | HTXO | HTXs | |
Proteins | 1.78 ± 0.69 b | 3.03 ± 0.09 a | 2.98 ± 0.06 a | 3.28 ± 0.11 a |
Moisture | 47.10 ± 0.27 c | 37.73 ± 0.03 a | 45.41 ± 0.83 a | 44.70 ± 0.37 a |
Ash | 0.61 ± 0.09 a | 0.79 ± 0.19 a | 2.10 ± 0.05 b | 1.25 ± 0.01 c |
Fiber | 11.36 ± 1.53 a | 6.29 ± 0.43 b | 16.44 ± 1.7 c | 19.89 ± 0.55 d |
Fat | 2.40 ± 0.18 a | 3.16 ± 0.11 a | 5.94 ± 0.09 b | 5.97 ± 0.49 b |
Carbohydrates | 36.75 ± 0.60 a | 49.00 ± 0.43 b | 27.13 ± 0.84 c | 24.91 ± 0.31 c |
Energy | 175.72 ± 1.61 a | 236.56 ± 0.29 b | 173.90 ± 0.32 a | 166.49 ± 0.17 c |
Sample | Folic Acid | THF | 5M-THF | 5F-THF | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
HXTO | 1669.79 ± 0.49 a | 432.14 ± 0.27 a | 549.19 ± 0.43 a | 228.19 ± 0.33 a | 2879.31 ± 0.55 a |
HXTS | 744.36 ± 0.32 b | 348.56 ± 0.34 a | 745.23 ± 0.20 a | 273.97 ± 0.10 a | 2112.12 ± 0.42 a |
COM | 496.58 ± 0.74 b | 192.36 ± 0.34 b | 65.25 ± 0.14 c | 85.36 ± 0.28 a | 839.55 ± 0.15 c |
C | 654.23 ± 0.16 b | 295.12 ± 0.22 b | 185.37 ± 0.65 d | 195.41 ± 0.11 a | 1330.13 ± 0.36 d |
Mineral | Sample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
HXTO | HXTS | C | Com | |
Al (mg/Kg) | 8.61 ± 0.01 a | 7.30 ± 0.01 b | 11.39 ± 0.02 c | 9.26 ± 0.01 d |
As (mg/Kg) | Nd a | Nd a | 0.07 ± 0.01 b | 0.03 ± 0.01 c |
B (mg/Kg) | 1.58 ± 0.01 a | 1.69 ± 0.01 b | 0.46 ± 0.01 c | 0.34 ± 0.02 d |
Ca (g/100 g) | 0.11 ± 0.01 a | 0.11 ± 0.01 a | 0.01 ± 0.01 b | 0.03 ± 0.01 b |
Cr (mg/Kg) | 0.13 ± 0.01 a | 0.14 ± 0.01 a | 0.03 ± 0.01 b | 0.02 ± 0.01 b |
Cu (mg/Kg) | 1.51 ± 0.01 a | 1.63 ± 0.01 b | 1.01 ± 0.01 c | 1.07 ± 0.01 d |
Fe (mg/Kg) | 9.99 ± 0.02 a | 10.16 ± 0.04 b | 9.67 ± 0.01 c | 7.33 ± 0.01 d |
Mg (g/100 g) | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 0.06 ± 0.01 a | 0.02 ± 0.01 b | 0.03 ± 0.01 b |
Mn (mg/Kg) | 7.18 ± 0.08 a | 7.34 ± 0.06 a | 3.88 ± 0.16 b | 2.12 ± 0.12 b |
P (g/100 g) | 0.10 ± 0.04 a | 0.10 ± 0.01 ab | 0.07 ± 0.01 ab | 0.05 ± 0.01 b |
Si (mg/kg) | 31.99 ± 0.01 a | 24.91 ± 0.01 b | 29.41 ± 1.39 c | 17.67 ± 1.46 d |
Sr (mg/Kg) | 3.46 ± 0.04 a | 3.26 ± 0.08 b | 0.81 ± 0.06 c | 0.25 ± 0.02 d |
Tl (mg/Kg) | 0.41 ± 0.03 a | 0.35 ± 0.01 a | 1.37 ± 0.06 b | 0.22 ± 0.06 c |
Zn (mg/Kg) | 7.07 ± 0.01 a | 7.01 ± 0.01 a | 8.16 ± 0.02 b | 3.65 ± 0.01 c |
Se (mg/kg) | nd | nd | nd | nd |
Samples | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Days of Storage | Control | HTXO | HTXS | Com |
Day 0 | 4.85 ± 0.02 a v | 5.88 ± 0.01 d w | 5.82 ± 0.01 c w | 5.15 ± 0.02 b x |
Day 4 | 5.08 ± 0.01 b w | 5.90 ± 0.01 c w | 5.80 ± 0.02 a wx | 5.21 ± 0.01 d w |
Day 7 | 5.11 ± 0.01 c w | 5.82 ± 0.01 b v | 5.90 ± 0.02 d v | 5.17 ± 0.01 a x |
Day 11 | 5.17 ± 0.01 d x | 5.90 ± 0.01 a w | 5.77 ± 0.01 b x | 5.13 ± 0.01 c x |
Control | HXTO | HXTS | Com | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Day 0 | L* | 79.21± 0.19 a, v | 58.78 ± 0.83 b, v | 62.29 ± 0.64 c, v | 69.27 ± 2.22 d, v |
a* | −2.03 ± 0.84 a, v | −6.15 ± 0.99 b, w | −5.53 ± 0.13 b, v | 5.62 ± 0.17 c, v | |
b* | 20.61 ± 0.42 a, w | 30.91 ± 0.04 b, v | 32.70 ± 2.08 b, v | 19.13 ± 1.16 a, v | |
C* | 20.28 ± 0.08 a, x | 31.73 ± 0.48 b, w | 31.68 ± 0.30 b, w | 19.93 ± 1.15 a, w | |
h | 93.29 ± 0.07 a, w | 99.57 ± 0.39 b, w | 100.18 ± 0.22 b, w | 73.60 ± 0.49 c, vw | |
Day 4 | L* | 78.91 ± 0.05 a, v | 57.76 ± 0.76 b, v | 59.24 ± 0.93 b, w | 70.29 ± 0.17 c, v |
a* | −1.50 ± 0.44 a, v | −3.17 ± 0.52 b, v | −5.16 ± 0.08 c, v | 5.60 ± 0.04 d, v | |
b* | 15.65 ± 0.03 a, v | 25.38 ± 0.64 b, w | 31.04 ± 0.20 c, v | 19.44 ± 0.04 d, v | |
C* | 15.79 ± 0.16 a, w | 25.44 ± 0.22 b, v | 31.53 ± 0.18 c, w | 20.23 ± 0.04 d, w | |
h | 95.13 ± 0.20 a, v | 98.64 ± 0.34 b, w | 99.42 ± 0.12 c, w | 73.92 ± 0.09 d, v | |
Day 7 | L* | 81.57 ± 0.69 a, v | 59.95 ± 0.57 b, v | 60.56 ± 0.51 b, vw | 71.18 ± 2.23 c, v |
a* | −0.87 ± 0.08 a, v | −5.11 ± 0.23 b, vw | −5.42 ± 0.37 b, v | 5.70 ± 0.21 c, v | |
b* | 9.15 ± 0.05 a, x | 23.83 ± 0.29 b, w | 25.34 ± 0.98 b, w | 18.86 ± 0.76 c, v | |
C* | 9.32 ± 0.21 a, v | 24.18 ± 0.03 b, v | 25.22 ± 0.37 b, x | 19.47 ± 1.47 c, w | |
h | 96.01 ± 0.53 a, v | 102.40 ± 0.06 b, v | 102.88 ± 0.03 b, v | 73.27 ± 0.11 c, vw | |
Day 11 | L* | 81.46 ± 0.61 a, v | 59.17 ± 0.75 b, v | 59.11 ± 0.13 b, w | 69.96 ± 0.61 c, v |
a* | −1.50 ± 0.22 a, v | −4.37 ± 0.14 b, v | −4.73 ± 0.11 b, v | 5.70 ± 0.21 c, v | |
b* | 17.46 ± 0.49 a, v | 25.67 ± 0.47 b, w | 28.17 ± 0.91 b, x | 18.62 ± 1.48 a, v | |
C* | 17.67 ± 0.53 a, y | 25.87 ± 0.08 b, v | 28.06 ± 0.36 c, v | 19.47 ± 1.47 d, w | |
h | 95.31 ± 0.22 a, v | 99.42 ± 0.20 b, w | 99.54 ± 0.24 b, w | 72.94 ± 0.78 c, w |
Samples | Chelating Activity Percent (%) | Antioxidant Activity (μmol TE/g) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
ABTS | DPPH | ORAC | FRAP | |
Sp | 22.02 ± 0.12 a | 44.06 ± 0.32 a | 1467.20 ± 38.24 a | 1980.80 ± 6.13 a |
CBC | 16.42 ± 0.21 b | 9.55 ± 0.42 b | 7719.20 ± 56.87 b | 8858.90 ± 17.68 b |
A | 47.92 ± 0.26 c | 79.25 ± 0.52 c | 19,684 ± 56.406 c | 1899.02 ± 25.478 a |
HXTo | 83.32 ± 3.62 d | 84.16 ± 2.35 d | 41,326 ± 236.65 d | 61,326 ± 526.36 d |
HXTs | 94.32 ± 5.32 e | 89.89 ± 3.92 e | 71,326 ± 278.32 e | 65,326 ± 1362.52 e |
Control | HXTO | HXTS | Com | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Day 0 | FRAP | 102.46 ± 0.82 a, w | 208.42 ± 0.54 b, w | 245.17 ± 3.95 c, w | 12.33 ± 1.82 d, w |
ORAC | 467.39 ± 0.55 a, w | 754.75 ± 1.39 b, w | 674.68 ± 1.53 c, x | 111.09 ± 6.02 d, w | |
ABTS | 22.24 ± 0.24 a, w | 43.82 ± 1.32 b, w | 60.58 ± 0.65 c, w | 8.97 ± 0.60 d, w | |
DPPH | 13.96 ± 1.52 a, w | 33.53 ± 1.61 b, w | 48.26 ± 0.66 c, w | 3.40 ± 0.84 d, w | |
Day 4 | FRAP | 66.47 ± 1.37 a, x | 107.85 ± 0.50 b, x | 186.91 ± 1.41 c, x | 9.78 ± 0.71 d, x |
ORAC | 402.15 ± 0.24 a, x | 469.09 ± 0.24 b, x | 672.57 ± 1.05 c, x | 105.34 ± 4.98 d, w | |
ABTS | 18.71 ± 0.44 a, x | 37.98 ± 1.22 b, x | 45.37 ± 1.35 c, x | 5.56 ± 0.52 d, x | |
DPPH | 2.29 ± 0.32 a, x | 28.80 ± 0.56 b, x | 35.70 ± 0.62 c, x | 2.21 ± 0.49 a, w | |
Day 7 | FRAP | 59.26 ± 1.19 a, y | 92.99 ± 1.75 b, y | 181.14 ± 1.20 c, y | 5.42 ± 2.25 a, x |
ORAC | 221.18 ± 1.05 a, y | 459.82 ± 1.12 b, y | 665.98 ± 1.00 c, x | 103.05 ± 7.64 d, w | |
ABTS | 17.35 ± 1.16 a, x | 36.65 ± 1.15 b, x | 39.38 ± 0.88 b, y | 4.44 ± 0.21 c, y | |
DPPH | 1.66 ± 0.31 a, x | 17.99 ± 0.55 b, y | 33.11 ± 1.16 c, y | 1.68 ± 0.02 a, w | |
Day 11 | FRAP | 50.09 ± 1.63 a, z | 89.37 ± 1.61 b, y | 176.68 ± 1.75 c, y | 4.59 ± 1.23 a, x |
ORAC | 90.45 ± 0.53 a, z | 459.51 ± 1.27 b, y | 647.17 ± 2.38 c, y | 86.67 ± 1.97 a, x | |
ABTS | 10.77 ± 1.14 a, y | 35.05 ± 1.82 b, x | 31.62 ± 2.23 c, z | 2.69 ± 0.47 d, z | |
DPPH | 1.11 ± 0.11 a, x | 11.31 ± 0.87 b, z | 28.36 ± 0.98 c, z | 0.44 ± 0.08 a, w |
Days of Storage | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Microorganism | Samples | 0 | 4 | 7 | 11 |
TVC | Control | 1.6 × 103 ± 200 a, w | 5.13 × 103 ± 404.15 a, w | 6.03 × 104 ± 5033.22 a b, w | 1.37 × 105 ± 55,075 b, w |
HXTs | 17.67 ± 6.81 a, w | 1.57 × 104 ± 351.19 a, w | 1.32 × 105 ± 11,239.81 b, w | 7.87 × 105 ± 70,237.69 c, x | |
HXTo | 3.57 × 103 ± 305.51 a, w | 1.7 × 104 ± 1000 a, w | 6.53 × 104 ± 5507.57 a, w | 7.63 × 105 ± 73,711.15 b, x | |
Commercial | 1.81 × 103 ± 45.83 a, w | 2.27 × 103 ± 309.89 a, w | 1.12 × 104 ± 251.66 a, w | 1.26 × 105 ± 9073.77 a, w | |
TMY | Control | <10 | 1.44 × 103 ± 45.09 a, w | 8.2 × 104 ± 3605 b, w | 1.5 × 105 ± 14,525 c, w |
HXTs | <10 | 3.78 × 103 ± 196.55 a, w | 4.07 × 104 ± 2081.67 a, w, x | 3.90 × 105 ± 29,569.12 b, y | |
HXTo | <10 | 5.57 × 103 ± 602.77 a, w | 2.78 × 104 ± 1795.36 a, x | 6.83 × 105 ± 30,550 b, x | |
Commercial | 1.7 × 103 ± 170.59 a | 2.2 × 103 ± 67.35 a, w | 2.16 x104 ± 602.77 a, x | 1.2 × 105 ± 3605.55 b, w, x, y | |
E. coli | Control | <10 | |||
HXTs | |||||
HXTo | |||||
Commercial | |||||
TCC | Control | <10 | |||
HXTs | |||||
HXTo | |||||
Commercial |
Sample | Appearance | Aroma | Texture | Taste | Color | Juiciness | Purchase Intention | Global Acceptance | Order Received | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Com | Average ± SD | 4.37 ± 0.72 | 3.50 ± 1.04 | 3.80 ± 1.03 | 3.30 ± 1.18 | 4.47 ± 0.82 | 3.93 ± 1.02 | 3.43 ± 0.97 | 3.70 ± 0.70 | 2.23 ± 1.19 |
C | 3.83 ± 1.02 | 3.40 ± 1.19 | 3.17 ± 1.15 | 3.17 ± 0.83 | 3.60 ± 1.07 | 3.17 ± 1.09 | 2.77 ± 1.10 | 3.27 ± 0.79 | 2.87 ± 1.04 | |
HXTO | 3.77 ± 1.01 | 3.17 ± 1.32 | 4.07 ± 0.79 | 3.33 ± 1.30 | 3.37 ± 1.27 | 4.07 ± 0.70 | 3.17 ± 1.32 | 3.40 ± 1.00 | 2.53 ± 1.01 | |
HXTS | 3.87 ± 0.90 | 3.43 ± 1.07 | 3.93 ± 0.79 | 3.17 ± 1.32 | 3.50 ± 1.33 | 3.87 ± 0.86 | 3.10 ± 1.32 | 3.30 ± 1.18 | 2.43 ± 1.17 |
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Peñalver, R.; Ros, G.; Nieto, G. Development of Gluten-Free Functional Bread Adapted to the Nutritional Requirements of Celiac Patients. Fermentation 2023, 9, 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070631
Peñalver R, Ros G, Nieto G. Development of Gluten-Free Functional Bread Adapted to the Nutritional Requirements of Celiac Patients. Fermentation. 2023; 9(7):631. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070631
Chicago/Turabian StylePeñalver, Rocío, Gaspar Ros, and Gema Nieto. 2023. "Development of Gluten-Free Functional Bread Adapted to the Nutritional Requirements of Celiac Patients" Fermentation 9, no. 7: 631. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation9070631