An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Cadmium Removal in Aquatic Environments by Chlorella vulgaris-Derived Solids
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. CV and Derived Materials
2.2. Materials Characterization
- pH and electrical conductivity (EC): Measured after the samples had been put in deionized water (with a 1/10 mass ratio) for 24 h on a reciprocating shaker at 20 °C. Then, pH value and electrical conductivity at 20 °C were measured according to the ASTM 2866-D standard method, employing an EYELA pH meter and 4320-JENWAY conductivity meter, respectively;
- Ash content: Obtained by keeping the samples at 730 °C for 8 h in a muffle furnace; the obtained ashes were then weighed, and their content was calculated by dividing it by the initial dry mass of the material;
- Volatile matter content: Measured according to ISO 562-2010 [28]. One gram of each sample was put into a porcelain crucible. Samples were heated via a furnace at 950 °C for 10 min in nitrogen flow, and after cooling, the final mass of the samples was weighed. The amount of the volatilized substance was calculated as the relative weight difference before and after the treatment;
- Ultimate analysis: The measurement of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) mass fractions within the samples was performed using a Thermo Finnigan elemental analyzer (FlashEA 1112 series). Oxygen was instead calculated by the difference in the mass fractions of the other elements and ash. Employing the element mass fractions, the products’ gross calorific value (GCV) was obtained through the equation proposed by Friedl et al. [29]: GCV = 3.55C2 − 232C − 2230H + 51.2C × H + 131N + 20,600 (MJ kg−1);
- Specific surface area (SSA): Measured based on the Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) method using the Belsorp mini II Surface Area Analyzer (Microtrac Bel Corp, Haan, Germany). External or non-microporous area and micro-pore volume (Vp) were calculated based on nitrogen gas adsorption before measuring the samples’ surface areas.
- Surface properties: The morphology of the samples was investigated using the FESEM-EDX Inspect 24 (ZEISS Sigma 300, Oberkochen, Germany). FESEM testing was conducted to determine the surface and pore patterns of the products. The surface functional groups of activated carbon were analyzed using an FTIR spectrophotometer (Nicolet is 10/Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA).
2.3. Adsorption Experiments
2.3.1. Isotherm Study
2.3.2. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
- Latent variables: These are variables that cannot be directly observed but are inferred from a set of observed variables that are related to them. Latent variables are also known as constructs or factors;
- Observed variables: These are variables that are directly measured or observed in the study. They are also referred to as indicators or manifest variables;
- Structural model: This is the part of SEM that represents the hypothesized relationships between the latent variables. It is specified by proposing paths (direct or indirect effects) between the latent variables based on theoretical assumptions;
- Measurement model: This represents the relationships between the latent variables and their observed indicators. It specifies how the latent variables are measured by the observed variables;
- SEM allows researchers to test complex hypotheses, explore the underlying structure of the data, and evaluate the fit of the proposed models to the data. It also provides estimates of the strength and significance of the relationships between variables and allows for the inclusion of measurement errors in the analysis.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Properties of CV and Its Biochar and Hydrochar
3.2. Adsorption Tests
3.2.1. Results
3.2.2. Adsorption Isotherms Modeling
3.2.3. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM)
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Nutrient | Concentration (g L−1) |
---|---|
Solution A: Nitrate and phosphate stock solution | |
NaNO3 | 84.2 |
Na2MoO4·2H2O | 6.0 |
FeCl3·6H2O | 2.9 |
Na2EDTA·2H2O | 10.0 |
Solution B: Silicate stock solution | |
Na2SiO3·9H2O | 33.0 |
Solution C: Trace element stock solution | |
CuSO4·5H2O | 2.0 |
Na2MoO4·2H2O | 4.4 |
CoCl2·6H2O | 2.0 |
MnCl2·4H2O | 36.0 |
Solution D: Vitamins stock solution | |
Biotin | 1.0 × 10−4 |
Vitamin B1 | 0.4 |
Vitamins B12 | 2.0 × 10−6 |
Property | Material | ||
---|---|---|---|
Biomass | Biochar | Hydrochar | |
Yield (%) | - | 56.2 ± 0.2 | 61.5 ± 0.3 |
C (%) | 37.20 | 45.92 | 48.55 |
H (%) | 5.66 | 3.88 | 5.04 |
N (%) | 5.11 | 4.41 | 4.12 |
S (%) | 0.84 | 0.57 | 0.51 |
O (%) | 22.29 | 13.11 | 10.98 |
Ash (%) | 28.9 ± 0.1 | 32.1 ± 0.2 | 30.8 ± 0.2 |
Volatile matter (%) | 54.3 ± 0.2 | 43.2 ± 0.4 | 48.8 ± 0.2 |
GCV (MJ kg−1) | 15.7 ± 0.3 | 18.5 ± 0.1 | 19.5 ± 0.3 |
pH | 6.9 ± 0.1 | 7.9 ± 0.1 | 6.7 ± 0.1 |
EC (dS m−1) | 2.6 ± 0.1 | 4.5 ± 0.2 | 3.4 ± 0.1 |
SSA (m2 g−1) | 6.8 ± 0.3 | 8.5 ± 0.1 | 8.1 ± 0.3 |
Pore diameter (nm) | 15.0 ± 0.2 | 22.3 ± 0.3 | 12.8 ± 0.3 |
Class | Functional Group | Wavelength Range (cm−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reference | Biomass | Biochar | Hydrochar | ||
Alcohol | O-–H stretch | 3400–3500 | 3414.36 | 3414.5 | 3415.99 |
Carboxylic acids | O–H stretch (s) | 3300–2500 | 2515.57 | 2515.75 | 2515.83 |
Alkanes | C–H stretch (s) | 3000–2850 | 2922.27 | 2853.21 | 2874.05 |
Aldehydes and ketones | C=O stretch (s) | 1730–1720 1640–1600 | 1638.68 | 1616.95 | 1617.34 |
Amides | N–H out of plane | 1470–1350 | 1420.42 | 1420.08 | 1416.26 |
Alkyl aryl ether | C–O stretch (s) | 1075–1020 | 1058.40 | - | - |
Aromatics | C–H out of plane (m) | 885–870 | 872.91 | 873.50 | 873.09 |
Alkenes | C=C plane (s) | 730–665 | 712.49 | 712.57 | 712.53 |
Halo compound | C–Cl stretch, C–Br stretch, and C–I stretch | 400–600 | 471.08 | 467.21 | 470.56 |
Materials | Current Study | [63] | [64] | [65] | [66] | [67] |
Biochar | 24.4 | - | 33.9 | 87.4 | - | - |
Hydrochar | 23.6 | 11.7–18.1 | - | - | - | - |
Biomass | 16.6 | - | - | - | 97.4 | 149.9 |
Materials | Langmuir | Freundlich | Temkin | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
qmax | b | R2 | Kf | 1/n | R2 | AT (L g−1) | bT | R2 | |
Biochar | 24.39 | 0.1393 | 0.99 | 6.77 | 0.563 | 0.96 | 4.69 | 560.66 | 0.968 |
Hydrochar | 23.58 | 0.142 | 0.988 | 11.13 | 0.515 | 0.913 | 4.94 | 591.60 | 0.981 |
Biomass | 16.56 | 0.3709 | 0.993 | 2.61 | 0.534 | 0.976 | 2.25 | 783.44 | 0.979 |
Source | Parameter | Weight Factor | Source | Parameter | Weight Factor |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dosage | 0.79 | 0.1 | pH | 0.86 | 3 |
0.83 | 0.2 | 0.76 | 5 | ||
0.80 | 0.4 | 0.85 | 6 | ||
0.75 | 0.8 | 0.85 | 7 | ||
0.91 | 1.0 | 0.87 | 8 | ||
0.87 | 2.0 | 0.83 | 9 | ||
Concentration | 0.83 | 0 | Time | 0.86 | 0 |
0.77 | 5 | 0.82 | 5 | ||
0.86 | 10 | 0.81 | 15 | ||
0.89 | 20 | 0.67 | 30 | ||
0.90 | 40 | 0.75 | 60 | ||
Materials | 0.73 | Biomass | 0.93 | 90 | |
0.88 | Biochar | 0.92 | 180 | ||
0.81 | Hydrochar |
R2 | Source |
---|---|
0.17 | Time—Materials |
0.45 | Time—pH |
0.36 | Time—Concentration |
0.54 | Time—Dosage |
0.65 | Removal of Cd |
Source | Q2 (=1 − SSE/SSO) |
---|---|
Materials | 0.839 |
pH | 0.521 |
Concentration | 0.458 |
Dosage | 0.744 |
Time | 0.388 |
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Sufian, J.; Babaakbari Sari, M.; Marchelli, F.; Fiori, L.; Avanes, A.; Moradi, S. An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Cadmium Removal in Aquatic Environments by Chlorella vulgaris-Derived Solids. C 2024, 10, 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/c10010002
Sufian J, Babaakbari Sari M, Marchelli F, Fiori L, Avanes A, Moradi S. An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Cadmium Removal in Aquatic Environments by Chlorella vulgaris-Derived Solids. C. 2024; 10(1):2. https://doi.org/10.3390/c10010002
Chicago/Turabian StyleSufian, Jafar, Mohammad Babaakbari Sari, Filippo Marchelli, Luca Fiori, Armen Avanes, and Salahedin Moradi. 2024. "An Analysis of the Factors Influencing Cadmium Removal in Aquatic Environments by Chlorella vulgaris-Derived Solids" C 10, no. 1: 2. https://doi.org/10.3390/c10010002