Biomonitoring of Inorganic Pollutants in Blood Samples of Population Affected by the Tajogaite Eruption: The ISVOLCAN Study in Spain
Highlights
- Proximity to the volcano, ash cleaning, and outdoor activity were associated with significantly elevated levels of several toxic elements.
- Aluminium and titanium exhibited the greatest variation and could serve as potential biomarkers of volcanic exposure.
- This is the first biomonitoring study to assess inorganic pollutants in blood samples from individuals exposed to a volcanic eruption.
- Findings support the need for long-term monitoring of populations exposed to volcanic activity to assess cumulative health risks.
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Study Area
2.3. Data and Blood Sample Collection
2.4. Inorganic Element Measurements
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics
3.2. Measurement of Inorganic Elements
3.3. Inorganic Contaminants and Their Association with Sociodemographic Characteristics
3.4. Inorganic Pollutants and Their Association with Level of Exposure to Volcano
3.5. Correlation Between Main Sociodemographic Factors and Level of Volcano Exposure with Concentration of Inorganic Elements
4. Discussion
Limitations and Strengths
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ATSDR | Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry |
HF | Hydrogen Fluoride |
HCl | Hydrogen Chloride |
H2S | Hydrogen Sulfide |
ICP-MS | Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry |
SO2 | Sulfur Dioxide |
WHO | World Health Organization |
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Variables | Total n = 393 | |
---|---|---|
n (%) | ||
Age category (years) | ≤50 | 187 (47.58) |
>50 | 206 (52.42) | |
Sex | Male | 170 (43.26) |
Female | 223 (56.74) | |
Distance (usual residence) to volcano (km) median (IQR) | 6.46 (4.64–7.12) | |
Distance (usual residence) to volcano (km) | <6.5 | 201 (51.15) |
≥6.5 | 192 (48.85) | |
Employment status | Active | 238 (60.6) |
Inactive | 155 (39.4) | |
Occupational exposure to toxic substances | No | 323 (82.19) |
Yes | 70 (17.81) | |
Years of occupational exposure to toxic substances; median (IQR) (n = 58) | 15.5 (5–23) | |
Years of occupational exposure to toxic substances (n = 58) | <15 years | 25 (43.10) |
≥15 years | 33 (56.90) | |
Smoking exposure | No | 220 (55.98) |
Yes | 173 (44.02) | |
Years of exposure to smoking; median (IQR) (n = 168) | 20 (10-30) | |
Years of exposure to smoking (n = 168) | <20 years | 65 (38.69) |
≥20 years | 103 (61.31) | |
Smoker status | Current smoker | 78 (19.85) |
Ex-smoker | 95 (24.17) | |
Never smoked | 220 (55.98) | |
Volcanic ash cleaning | No | 32 (8.14) |
Yes | 361 (91.86) | |
Cleaning tools (n = 361) | High (particle projection) | 333 (92.24) |
Moderate (particle projection) | 21 (5.82) | |
Low (particle projection) | 7 (1.94) | |
Cleaning frequency (n = 356) | ≥1 once a day | 186 (52.25) |
1–6 times per week | 155 (43.54) | |
Every 15 days/monthly | 15 (4.21) | |
Daily hours spent in outdoor environments | No or <1 h | 41 (10.43) |
1–5 h | 150 (38.17) | |
>5 h | 202 (51.4) |
Inorganic Elements Included in the ATSDR’s Priority Pollutant List (2022) | Frequency of Detection (%) | Mean (SD) | Median (IQR) | 95% Confidence Interval (Lower Limit-Upper Limit) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Al (Aluminium) | 30.53 | 518.6 (949.59) | 80.36 (39.42–180.76) | (346.95–690.24) |
Cd (Cadmium) | 45.80 | 0.46 (0.69) | 0.23 (0.12–0.45) | (0.36–0.56) |
Co (Cobalt) | 44.02 | 0.26 (0.24) | 0.21 (0.13–0.29) | (0.23–0.30) |
Cs (Cesium) | 95.42 | 1.77 (0.86) | 1.66 (1.14–2.32) | (1.69–1.86) |
Cu (Copper) | 100.00 | 888.33 (189.32) | 842.33 (777.62–954.77) | (869.56–907.11) |
Hg (Mercury) | 98.73 | 3.87 (3.15) | 3.13 (1.58–5.1) | (3.55–4.18) |
Mn (Manganese) | 96.44 | 7.87 (2.88) | 7.48 (6.12–9.48) | (7.58–8.16) |
Ni (Nickel) | 40.46 | 10.96 (62.64) | 3.86 (1.9–5.58) | (1.15–20.78) |
Pb (Lead) | 92.11 | 7.73 (7.18) | 6.04 (3.65–9.75) | (6.99–8.47) |
Se (Selenium) | 100.00 | 112.77 (30.04) | 109.24 (94.06–126.07) | (109.79–115.75) |
Sr (Strontium) | 98.47 | 14.24 (6.08) | 13.6 (10.48–17.05) | (13.63–14.85) |
Other inorganic elements not included in the priority pollutant list | ||||
Rb (Rubidium) | 100.00 | 1869.86 (381.97) | 1848.83 (1621.31–2088.65) | (1831.98–1907.75) |
Sn (Tin) | 32.57 | 6.84 (5.25) | 4.76 (2.87–10.28) | (5.92–7.76) |
Ti (Titanium) | 69.72 | 8.26 (4.18) | 7.22 (5.41–10.32) | (7.77–8.76) |
Inorganic Elements | Cd | Hg | Pb | Mn | Cu | Al | Ni | Sr | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% of Detection | 46% | 99% | 92% | 96% | 100% | 31% | 41% | 99% | |
Variables | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | |
Age category (years) | ≤50 | 0.18 (0.11–0.34) | 2.52 (1.49–4.29) ** | 5.79 (3.21–9.43) | 7.37 (5.82–9.65) | 830.95 (769.41–936.97) | 81.04 (37.42–189.18) | 3.40 (1.84–5.10) | 12.50 (9.51–15.26) *** |
>50 | 0.25 (0.12–0.51) | 3.60 (1.76–5.87) | 6.42 (4.09–9.78) | 7.53 (6.16–9.36) | 855.81 (783.72–963.35) | 79.67 (43.33–163.65) | 4.34 (2.03–6.25) | 14.89 (12.02–18.80) | |
Sex | Male | 0.21 (0.12–0.47) | 3.58 (1.59–5.86) | 8.72 (5.09–13.11) *** | 7.52 (6.19–9.27) | 793.91 (740.04–852.86) *** | 57.28 (32.81–169.82) * | 2.68 (1.66–4.72) ** | 13.55 (10.53–16.35) |
Female | 0.23 (0.12–0.44) | 2.89 (1.57–4.75) | 4.70 (3.01–7.23) | 7.37 (5.83–10.10) | 913.97 (820.57–1021.53) | 100.07 (55.46–273.15) | 4.40 (2.31–6.56) | 13.84 (10.43–17.66) | |
Years of occupational exposure to toxic substances | <15 years | 0.33 (0.12–0.44) | 1.88 (1.21–2.69) * | 6.60 (3.39–9.39) | 6.85 (5.95–9.27) * | 849.24 (794.79–957.80) * | 84.80 (52.92–243.65) | 4.02 (2.18–4.27) | 13.76 (11.09–17.91) |
≥15 years | 0.21 (0.13–0.50) | 3.98 (2.00–6.32) | 8.79 (5.38–14.13) | 8.55 (6.82–10.48) | 790.40 (711.20–838.32) | 100.49 (28.06–2.046.19) | 2.16 (1.56–4.72) | 13.88 (10.32–18.23) | |
Smoking exposure | No | 0.14 (0.10–0.25) *** | 3.12 (1.54–5.21) | 4.99 (3.16–8.17) *** | 7.65 (6.28–9.93) * | 854.02 (778.01–972.25) | 79.67 (40.08–123.26) | 3.89 (1.93–5.85) | 13.22 (10.37–16.28) |
Yes | 0.34 (0.19–0.78) | 3.13 (1.60–4.94) | 7.57 (4.70–12.32) | 7.34 (5.81–9.06) | 831.25 (774.12–940.72) | 92.97 (37.10–1.329.38) | 3.83 (1.84–5.39) | 13.98 (10.82–17.72) | |
Smoker status | Current smoker | 0.55 (0.29–1.04) *** | 2.51 (1.46–4.33) | 7.54 (4.72–13.25) *** | 6.77 (5.81–8.77) | 818.37 (764.52–929.48) | 96.52 (37.10–1.885.53) | 3.25 (1.84–6.08) | 13.86 (10.53–17.37) |
Ex-smoker | 0.22 (0.11–0.34) | 3.69 (1.96–5.63) | 7.62 (4.70–11.32) | 7.44 (5.85–9.31) | 842.33 (779.72–960.00) | 65.13 (38.71–732.49) | 3.91 (2.21–5.08) | 14.12 (11.34–18.45) | |
Never smoked | 0.14 (0.10–0.25) | 3.12 (1.54–5.21) | 4.99 (3.16–8.17) | 7.65 (6.28–9.93) | 854.02 (778.01–972.25) | 79.67 (40.08–123.26) | 3.89 (1.93–5.85) | 13.22 (10.37–16.28) |
Inorganic Elements | Cu | Se | Al | Ti | Ni | Sr | Sn | Cs | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% of Detection | 100% | 100% | 31% | 70% | 41% | 99% | 33% | 95% | |
Variables | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | Median (IQR) | |
Distance (usual residence) to volcano (km) | <6.5 | 845.46 (781.52–946.44) | 107.93 (90.47–125.51) * | 107.82 (49.45–323.00) * | 7.60 (5.70–11.40) * | 3.68 (1.82–5.24) | 13.76 (9.98–16.96) | 4.37 (2.39–7.00) ** | 1.54 (1.06–2.24) |
≥6.5 | 839.18 (771.31–966.81) | 111.51 (96.57–129.42) | 55.33 (36.81–100.41) | 6.88 (5.04–9.36) | 4.02 (2.38–6.56) | 13.47 (10.69–17.21) | 5.85 (3.63–12.22) | 1.73 (1.23–2.33) | |
Volcanic ash cleaning | No | 809.56 (777.16–896.52) | 107.38 (92.52–122.81) | 103.61 (30.62–2295.76) | 7.05 (5.80–11.06) | 2.09 (1.34–2.77) * | 15.86 (12.53–18.90) * | 3.58 (1.93–4.60) | 1.54 (0.97–2.64) |
Yes | 845.23 (777.62–960.00) | 109.36 (94.26–126.20) | 79.67 (40.08–169.82) | 7.24 (5.39–10.32) | 3.93 (1.98–5.70) | 13.55 (10.32–16.64) | 4.93 (2.89–10.82) | 1.67 (1.16–2.24) | |
Cleaning frequency | > = 1 once a day | 874.27 (788.01–1006.37) ** | 111.19 (92.64–132.13) | 83.49 (41.60–189.18) | 6.98 (5.28–9.75) | 4.18 (2.14–6.68) | 13.57 (10.27–16.28) | 5.13 (3.04–11.71) | 1.77 (1.32–2.37) * |
1–6 times per week | 834.38 (769.41–906.15) | 109.58 (96.64–123.37) | 79.70 (38.71–163.87) | 7.28 (5.36–10.29) | 3.93 (1.98–5.14) | 13.56 (10.49–16.67) | 4.55 (2.71–7.52) | 1.55 (1.05–2.15) | |
Every 15 days/monthly | 769.25 (740.04–932.50) | 103.78 (95.33–127.23) | 62.49 (52.68–116.39) | 11.66 (8.01–12.95) | 2.83 (1.47–4.19) | 11.11 (7.13–14.45) | 3.98 (2.86–11.18) | 1.52 (0.82–2.32) | |
Daily hours spent in outdoor environments | None or <1 h | 883.61 (820.59–987.01) ** | 99.28 (80.12–115.56) ** | 93.48 (46.54–172.33) | 6.48 (4.62–9.47) | 3.91 (1.98–6.07) | 13.24 (10.25–16.96) | 5.10 (2.60–10.24) | 1.50 (1.21–2.29) |
1–5 h | 866.66 (783.96–973.63) | 108.92 (91.50–126.94) | 88.78 (39.05–169.82) | 8.23 (5.85–11.77) | 4.29 (1.90–6.08) | 14.10 (10.50–18.23) | 4.57 (2.41–7.33) | 1.74 (1.15–2.33) | |
>5 h | 826.93 (770.53–916.70) | 112.69 (97.52–127.07) | 73.04 (39.25–281.02) | 7.05 (5.17–9.48) | 3.46 (1.90–5.09) | 13.47 (10.49–16.17) | 4.97 (3.15–11.07) | 1.61 (1.09–2.37) |
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Simbaña-Rivera, K.; Rodríguez-Pérez, M.C.; Fuentes-Ferrer, M.E.; Zumbado Peña, M.; Rodríguez Hernández, Á.; Eychenne, J.; Sauzéat, L.; Jaramillo-Aguilar, D.S.; Rodríguez Chamorro, A.; Boada, L.D. Biomonitoring of Inorganic Pollutants in Blood Samples of Population Affected by the Tajogaite Eruption: The ISVOLCAN Study in Spain. Toxics 2025, 13, 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070581
Simbaña-Rivera K, Rodríguez-Pérez MC, Fuentes-Ferrer ME, Zumbado Peña M, Rodríguez Hernández Á, Eychenne J, Sauzéat L, Jaramillo-Aguilar DS, Rodríguez Chamorro A, Boada LD. Biomonitoring of Inorganic Pollutants in Blood Samples of Population Affected by the Tajogaite Eruption: The ISVOLCAN Study in Spain. Toxics. 2025; 13(7):581. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070581
Chicago/Turabian StyleSimbaña-Rivera, Katherine, María Cristo Rodríguez-Pérez, Manuel Enrique Fuentes-Ferrer, Manuel Zumbado Peña, Ángel Rodríguez Hernández, Julia Eychenne, Lucie Sauzéat, Damary S. Jaramillo-Aguilar, Ana Rodríguez Chamorro, and Luis D. Boada. 2025. "Biomonitoring of Inorganic Pollutants in Blood Samples of Population Affected by the Tajogaite Eruption: The ISVOLCAN Study in Spain" Toxics 13, no. 7: 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070581
APA StyleSimbaña-Rivera, K., Rodríguez-Pérez, M. C., Fuentes-Ferrer, M. E., Zumbado Peña, M., Rodríguez Hernández, Á., Eychenne, J., Sauzéat, L., Jaramillo-Aguilar, D. S., Rodríguez Chamorro, A., & Boada, L. D. (2025). Biomonitoring of Inorganic Pollutants in Blood Samples of Population Affected by the Tajogaite Eruption: The ISVOLCAN Study in Spain. Toxics, 13(7), 581. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13070581