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Volume 13
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Article

Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus

by
Jessica Lombardo
1,
Maria del Mar Ribas-Taberner
1,
Maria Magdalena Quetglas-Llabrés
1,2,
Samuel Pinya
2,3,
Llorenç Gil
3,
Silvia Tejada
2,4,5,
Antoni Sureda
1,2,5,* and
Montserrat Compa
1
1
Research Group in Community Nutrition and Oxidative Stress (NUCOX), University of Balearic Islands, 07122 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
2
Health Research Institute of Balearic Islands (IdISBa), 07120 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
3
Interdisciplinary Ecology Group, University of the Balearic Islands, 07122 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
4
Laboratory of Neurophysiology, University of the Balearic Islands, 07122 Palma de Mallorca, Spain
5
CIBEROBN (Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Toxics 2025, 13(1), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066
Submission received: 28 December 2024 / Revised: 15 January 2025 / Accepted: 18 January 2025 / Published: 20 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)
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Abstract

Human activities increasingly threaten marine ecosystems through rising waste and temperatures. This study investigated the role of plastics as vectors for Vibrio bacteria and the effects of temperature on the marine sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Samples of plastics and sponges were collected during July, August (high-temperature period), and November (lower-temperature period). Bacterial growth and sponge responses were analysed using biochemical biomarkers. The results revealed a peak in colony-forming units (CFU), particularly of Vibrio alginolyticus, on plastics and sponges in August, followed by a decrease in November. In August, CFU counts of Vibrio spp. were significantly higher in sponges with poor external appearance (characterized by dull coloration and heavy epiphytic growth) but returned to levels observed in healthy sponges by November. Microplastics were detected in the tissues of both sponge groups, with higher concentrations found in affected specimens. Biomarker analyses revealed increased lysozyme, glutathione S-transferase, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities in healthy sponges during August, while malondialdehyde levels, indicating oxidative damage, were higher in affected sponges. In conclusion, affected sponges exhibited elevated CFU counts of Vibrio spp. and reduced antioxidant and detoxification responses under elevated temperatures. These findings suggest that combined impacts of plastics and warming may pose significant risks to S. spinosulus in the context of global climate change.
Keywords: temperature; plastics; stress; sponge; Vibrio; Balearic Islands temperature; plastics; stress; sponge; Vibrio; Balearic Islands

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MDPI and ACS Style

Lombardo, J.; Ribas-Taberner, M.d.M.; Quetglas-Llabrés, M.M.; Pinya, S.; Gil, L.; Tejada, S.; Sureda, A.; Compa, M. Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Toxics 2025, 13, 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066

AMA Style

Lombardo J, Ribas-Taberner MdM, Quetglas-Llabrés MM, Pinya S, Gil L, Tejada S, Sureda A, Compa M. Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Toxics. 2025; 13(1):66. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066

Chicago/Turabian Style

Lombardo, Jessica, Maria del Mar Ribas-Taberner, Maria Magdalena Quetglas-Llabrés, Samuel Pinya, Llorenç Gil, Silvia Tejada, Antoni Sureda, and Montserrat Compa. 2025. "Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus" Toxics 13, no. 1: 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066

APA Style

Lombardo, J., Ribas-Taberner, M. d. M., Quetglas-Llabrés, M. M., Pinya, S., Gil, L., Tejada, S., Sureda, A., & Compa, M. (2025). Human Activity as a Growing Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Plastic and Temperature Effects on the Sponge Sarcotragus spinosulus. Toxics, 13(1), 66. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13010066

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