Comparison of Traditional and Novel Drying Techniques and Its Effect on Quality of Fruits, Vegetables and Aromatic Herbs
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Drying Techniques in Fruits, Vegetable, and Herbs Preservation
2.1. Heat Pump Drying (HP)
2.2. Electromagnetic Radiation Techniques
2.2.1. Microwave Drying (MD)
2.2.2. Infrared Drying (ID)
2.2.3. Radio Frequency Drying (FR)
2.2.4. Refractance Window Drying (RW)
2.3. Explosion Puffing Drying (EPD)
2.4. Low-Pressure Superheated Steam Drying (LPSSD)
2.5. Combined Drying Methods
2.5.1. Microwave-Assisted Convective Drying (CD-MD)
2.5.2. Vacuum-Microwave Drying (VMD)
2.5.3. Convective Drying Followed by Vacuum Microwave Drying (CD-VMD)
2.5.4. Fluidized Bed Drying (FBD)-Assisted by Microwaves, Far Infrared Rays, and Ultrasounds
2.5.5. Intermittent Drying (IMD) of Food Products Assisted by Temperature, Pressure, Humidity, Convection, Radiation, and Microwave
3. Product Quality Parameters Affected by Drying Methods
Drying Method | Drying Agent | Feed Type | Mechanism | Advantages | Disadvantages | Application | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convective drying (CD) | hot drying air | Solids—fruits, vegetables, fruit and vegetable pomace | Moisture exchange between the food product and the hot air flowing through the drying chamber | Long shelf-life, simple design; Easy operation; Low cost | High inlet gas temperature or very dry gas; Long drying time, exposure to oxidation; Generates off flavors; Crust formation on the product surface due to the high temperatures | Food industry; Vegetable and fruit dry products; Pomace processing—functional ingredients production | [31,37,38,39,40] |
Spray drying (SD) | hot drying gas (usually air) | Liquid—i.e., juices, purée, solutions, vegetable milk | Transformation of liquid product into dry powder form in one-step processing operation | Low moisture content and high-quality products; Long shelf-life; Similar size and shape of dried material; Continuous operation Lower cost than freeze-drying | Might lead to bioactive compounds loss and stickiness due to the high temperature, equipment size, products with large fat content require a defat process, high installation cost | Powder production; Microencapsulation; Production of instant powders | [41,42,43,44] |
Freeze-drying (FD) | All types of food | Two steps process: (1) freezing the water from the raw material; (2) heating of the frozen solid to induce the moisture sublimation | Prevents oxidation damages; Minimize chemical compounds changes; Minimal shrinkage and shift of soluble solids; Retention of volatile compounds; Maintenance of porous structure | Very high facilities cost; Slow and expensive process | Production of heat-sensitive compounds i.e., vitamins, microbial cultures, and antibiotics; Production of high-quality products with high final cost: exotic fruits, vegetables, soup ingredients, mushrooms, and juices | [1,2] | |
Osmotic dehydration (OD) | sugar, salt (sodium chloride) solutions, concentrate juices, polyols solutions | Fruits, vegetables | Moisture reduction by immersion of the raw material in a high osmotic pressure solution → moisture transfer from the food to the solution driven by the difference in osmotic pressure | Maintenance of the physicochemical and sensory parameters; When carried out in concentrated juices might enhance product quality | High final moisture content; Usually needs further drying; High content of sugar or salt in the product when dehydrated in this type of solution; Difficulty in predicting final chemical composition when dehydrated in concentrated juices | Fruit chips production; Production of dried fruits i.e., plums as a pre-treatment before further drying | [45,46,47,48] |
Intermittent drying | hot air, microwave power, vacuum and infrared | Fruits, vegetables | Intermittent microwave heating is led by applying microwave energy as sequential pulses, where power ratio has an important role in drying kinetics | Protect bioactive compounds, color, texture; reduce the browning effects and enhance the shelf life. | Higher power ratio can damage important compounds such as ascorbic acid. | Plant-based food material; Fruits: kiwi, papaya, banana, guava, carrot, etc. | [33,35,36] |
Drying Method | Color | Structural Properties | Polyphenols Content | Antioxidant Activity | Volatile Compounds | Essential Oil (EO) Content | Sensory |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Convective drying (CD) | color changes, generally darkening of the product (blueberries, black mulberries) improved color in case of blackcurrant powder | product hardening, high shrinkage, dense structure, low porosity, high bulk density; when combined with ultrasounds-higher capacity of dehydration in mushrooms, Brussel sprouts, cauliflowers | reduction of TPC in i.e., chokecherries, chokeberry, chokeberries, moringa leaves, and mango cubes | high reduction of antioxidant activity in many products (chokecherries, blueberries, chokeberries, mango cubes) | generally high loss of volatiles; higher content than for other methods on the studies on shitake mushrooms and chanterelle | higher yield of essential oil than during MD of herbs (rosemary and basil) | generate off flavors, decrease of fresh, floral, herbaceous attributes |
Microwave drying (MD) | better preservation of color than CD | high porous materials in the studies in potato and carrots decreased porosity in the studies on apple and banana | retention of polyphenols in moringa leaves | retention of antioxidants in moringa leaves | high loss of volatiles, but lower than CD | better yield and preservation in basil and coriander | - |
Vacuum drying (VD) | - | high porosity in the studies on apple and banana low porosity on the studies of potato and carrot | retention of polyphenols in moringa leaves | retention of antioxidants in moringa leaves | - | - | - |
Vacuum-microwave drying (VMD) | Improved color in case of blackcurrant powder | low shrinkage in comparison to CD but higher than FD, porous structure, better than CD in the studies on chokeberries, faster reconstitution, lower bulk density than CD | higher than CD in the studies on sour cherries | higher than CD in the studies on sour cherries | higher loss of some compounds than CD | increased EO yield in garlic, higher loss of EO than CD of rosemary | decrease of fresh, floral, herbaceous attributes, increase of sweetness, bitterness and adhesiveness |
combined convective drying followed by vacuum-microwave drying (CD-VMD) | Slight degradation of color (better than CD and VMD); Improved color in case of blackcurrant powder | lower bulk density than CD | higher than CD and VMD in the studies on sour cherries, chokeberries, | higher than CD and VMD in the studies on sour cherries, Saskatoon berries, chokeberries | higher retention in the studies on chanterelle than other drying methods | increased EO yield in thyme, oregano, and rosemary | - |
Freeze-drying (FD) | good preservation of natural color in many studies (i.e., black mulberries) | no shrinkage, no collapse, highest porosity, loss of elasticity, viscous material, lower bulk density than CD | preservation of TPC (black mulberry, chokeberries) | preservation of antioxidants | major loss in drying of parsley, low loss of flavor and aroma | preservation of most EOs | - |
Osmotic dehydration (OD) | good preservation of color, change of color due to the osmotic solution properties (when concentrated juice is used as osmotic solution) | when combined with FD—strengthen the material structure when used as a pre-treatment before CD or CD-VMD—increase porosity lower bulk density than CD | increase when dehydrated in chokeberry, sour cherry solution, degradation in the studies on sour cherries | degradation in the studies on sour cherries increase when carried out in concentrated pomegranate and chokeberry juices | - | - | - |
Heat pump drying (HP) | improved color in rosemary and parsley brown areas when applied on nuts | good preservation of the structure in some herbs than other drying methods | good preservation of polyphenols in drying of herbs | good preservation of polyphenols in drying of herbs | volatiles retention on the studies on ginger | - | - |
Fluidized bed drying (FB) | good color retention | - | no significant reduction in kafir leaves | no significant reduction in kafir leaves | - | - | - |
Refractance window drying (RW) | decreased browning reaction in pomegranate leather | positively affected | retention of polyphenols high content in pestil pomegranate | retention or improved antioxidant activity in the studies on asparagus, sweet corn and tomatoes high content in pestil pomegranate | - | - | - |
Intermittent drying | reduce the color degradation | maintain the product microstructure obtaining a porous structure similar to the fresh sample | Retention of polyphenols | retention of ascorbic acid, carotenoids, and so increasing in the antioxidant activity | retains the lower volatile compounds (due to microwave energy penetration which accelerates the disruption of the cell membranes that ultimately releases the volatile compounds faster) | - | protect cells from oxidative injury, providing better sensory quality |
3.1. Color Changes during Dehydration
Drying Method ± | Conditions | Vegetal Material | Parameter Affected | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
CD | 50–90 °C | Blackcurrant pomace powder | L*, a*, b*, C* | [53] |
50–70 °C | Soya | L*, h | [55] | |
60 °C | Piper borbonense | L*, a*, b* | [56] | |
50–60 °C | Pepper | L*, a*, b* | [63] | |
30–70 °C | Pumpkin and green pepper | C*, h | [64] | |
50–70 °C | Sour Cherries | L*, a*, b* | [57] | |
50–90 °C | Chokeberry | L*, a*, b* | [58] | |
50–70 °C | Pomegranate | L*, a*, b* | [55] | |
60 °C | Apples | L*, b* | [65] | |
VD | 240–480 W | Chokeberry | L*, a*, b* | [58] |
VMD | 240–480 W | Blackcurrant pomace powder | L*, a*, b*, C* | [53] |
2.5, 1.9, and 1.3 W/g | Carrots | L*, a*, b* | [66] | |
240–480 W | Chokeberry | L*, a*, b* | [58] | |
320–120 W | Apples | L*, b* | [65] | |
CD-VMD | 50–90 °C/480 W | Blackcurrant pomace powder | L*, a*, b*, C* | [53] |
300 W/40 °C | Herbs: basil, lovage, mint, oregano, parsley and rocket | a*, b* | [67] | |
120–180 W/50–70 °C | Sour Cherries | L*, a*, b* | [57] | |
60 °C/320–120 W | Apples | L*, b* | [65] | |
50–70 °C/90–180 W | Pomegranate | L*, a*, b* | [54] | |
50–70 °C/360–120 W | Chokeberry | L*, a*, b* | [58] | |
CD-EPD | CD 70 °C-EP 80 °C-CD 70 °C | Black mulberry | L*, a*, b* | [20] |
RWD | 90–98 °C | Pomegranate | L*, a*, b* | [54] |
3.2. Physical Properties of Dried Fruit
3.2.1. Structure
3.2.2. Porosity
3.2.3. Bulk Density of the Dried Material
3.2.4. Shrinkage
4. Effects of Drying on Functional Properties and Nutritional Quality of Food Products
4.1. Changes in Phytochemicals Compounds
Drying Method ± | Conditions ± | Vegetal Material | Phytochemicals | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
CD | 55–62 °C | Sweet potato | β-carotene Vitamin C | [39] |
50–70 °C | Jujube | Flavonoids Vitamin C | [82] | |
65–73 °C | Avocado | Flavonoids Phenolic acids | [83] [40] | |
50–70 °C 50–60 °C | Pomegranate Strawberry | Anthocyanins | [84] [85] | |
55–65 °C | Cauliflower | Vitamin C | [86] | |
VMD | 120 W–480 W | Jujube | Flavonoids Vitamin C | [40] [82] |
CD-VMD | 60 °C/480–120 W | Jujube | Flavonoids Vitamin C | [40] [82] |
SD | 110–130 °C | Tomato pulp | Licopene | [87] |
120 °C | Grapefruit | Flavonoids Phenolic acids | [83] |
4.2. Changes in Antioxidant Capacity as a Result of Dehydration
Drying Method ± | Conditions ± | Vegetal Material | AC Affected | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
CD | 40 °C | Date fiber | DPPH TPC | [89] |
50–70 °C | Pomegranate | DPPH | [25] | |
50–90 °C | Blackcurrant | ABTS TPC | [53] | |
50–70 °C | Jujube | ABTS FRAP | [82] | |
55–62 °C | Sweet potato | TPC | [39] | |
40–60 °C | Cocao bean | TPC | [90] | |
VMD | 240–480 W | Pomegranate | DPPH TPC | [25] |
120 W–480 W | Blackcurrant | ABTS TPC | [53] | |
120 W–480 W | Jujube | ABTS FRAP | [82] | |
CD-VMD | 50–90 °C/480 W | Blackcurrant | ABTS TPC | [53] |
50–90 °C/480 W 60 °C/480–120 W | Jujube | ABTS FRAP | [82] | |
SD | 120 °C | Grapefruit | DPPH | [83] |
4.3. Changes in Nutriotional Quality of Dehydrated Food Products
5. Changes in the Volatile Compounds or Essential Oils during Dehydration of Fruits, Vegetables, and Aromatic Herbs
6. Sensory Properties of Dried Fruits, Vegetables, and Aromatic Herbs
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Calín-Sánchez, Á.; Lipan, L.; Cano-Lamadrid, M.; Kharaghani, A.; Masztalerz, K.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á.A.; Figiel, A. Comparison of Traditional and Novel Drying Techniques and Its Effect on Quality of Fruits, Vegetables and Aromatic Herbs. Foods 2020, 9, 1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091261
Calín-Sánchez Á, Lipan L, Cano-Lamadrid M, Kharaghani A, Masztalerz K, Carbonell-Barrachina ÁA, Figiel A. Comparison of Traditional and Novel Drying Techniques and Its Effect on Quality of Fruits, Vegetables and Aromatic Herbs. Foods. 2020; 9(9):1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091261
Chicago/Turabian StyleCalín-Sánchez, Ángel, Leontina Lipan, Marina Cano-Lamadrid, Abdolreza Kharaghani, Klaudia Masztalerz, Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina, and Adam Figiel. 2020. "Comparison of Traditional and Novel Drying Techniques and Its Effect on Quality of Fruits, Vegetables and Aromatic Herbs" Foods 9, no. 9: 1261. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9091261