Antimicrobial Blue Light versus Pathogenic Bacteria: Mechanism, Application in the Food Industry, Hurdle Technologies and Potential Resistance
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Pathogenic Bacteria in Food
3. Antimicrobial Blue Light
3.1. Mechanism
3.2. Available Technologies
3.3. Blue Light Regimes
3.4. Safety of Blue Light
4. Application of Antimicrobial Blue Light on Surfaces and in Food Matrixes
4.1. Inactivation of Bacteria on Food Packaging and Work Surfaces
4.2. Inactivation of Bacteria in Dairy and Liquid Foods: Milk, Cheese and Orange Juice
4.3. Inactivation of Bacteria in Horticultural Products
4.4. Inactivation of Bacteria in Meat Products and Seafood (Chicken, Beef and Fish)
5. Potential Application of Blue Light in Food Supply Chain
5.1. Food Processing and Farms: Airborne and Surface Inactivation
5.2. Aquaculture
5.3. Retail: Prolonging Shelf-Life
6. Hurdle Technology
6.1. Photosensitizers
6.2. Acidity and Temperature
6.3. Nanoparticle
6.4. Plant Extracts: Polyphenols and Essential Oils
7. Blue Light versus Antimicrobial Resistance and Consequences of Sub-Lethal Light Exposures
7.1. Resistant Bacteria: Improved Sensitivity to Antibiotics
7.2. Inactivation of Biofilms
7.3. Sub-Lethal Exposures Induce Cellular Processes Potentially Leading to Tolerance
8. Research Gap and Future Outlook
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bacteria | Surface | Reduction (CFU, CFU/mL or CFU/g) | Light Dosage | Light Source; Temperature; Distance; Photosensitizer β | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
B. cereus (vegetative or spores) | Food packaging (yellow trays; LINPAC) | 4 log (vegetative); 2.7 log (spores) | 18 J/cm2 | Blue LED (400 nm; 20 mW/cm2); ALA 1 (3 mmol/L) | [166] |
B. cereus (vegetative or spores) L. monocytogenes (planktonic or biofilms) | Polyolefin food packaging (yellow trays; LINPAC) | 4–4.5 log (vegetative); 2–5 log (spores) 4.2 log | 3600–10,800 J (vegetative); 3600 J (spores) 3600 J | Blue LED (405 nm; 12 mW/cm2); CHL 2 (7.5 × 10−7–1.5 × 10−6 M for vegetative cells or 7.5 × 10−6–7.5 × 10−5 M for spores) Blue LED (405 nm; 12 mW/cm2); CHL 2 (7.5 × 10−7 M for planktonic cells or 1.5 × 10−4 M for biofilms) | [167] |
L. monocytogenes (planktonic or biofilms) | Polyolefin food packaging (yellow trays; LINPAC) | 2.3–3.7 log (planktonic); 1.7–3 log (biofilm) | 18 J/cm2 | Blue LED (400 nm; 20 mW/cm2); ALA 1 (7.5 or 10 mM) | [168] |
Uropathogenic E. coli; E. coli O157:H7; Salmonella spp.; L. monocytogenes; S. aureus | STC 2 contaminated with bacteria-laden chicken purge | 0.23–1.01 log | 180 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 150 or 300 mW/cm2); 10 °C; 23 cm | [161] |
Campylobacter jejuni Campylobacter coli | STC 3 contaminated with bacteria-laden chicken exudate | 1.1 or 4.9 log 3.1 or 5.1 log | 91.7 or 183.4 J/cm2 89.2 or 185.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 151, 226 or 306 mW/cm2); 10 °C; 20.3 cm | [162] |
E. coli L. monocytogenes S. aureus P. aeruginosa | Glass or acrylic surfaces | 7–8 log (glass); 5 log (acrylic) α 2.48 (glass) 2.75 (glass) 3.72 (glass) | 504 J/cm2 (E. coli) or 168 J/cm2 (other bacterial species) | Blue LED (405 nm; 141.48 mW/cm2); RT 4; 5 cm | [164] |
C. jejuni | Stainless steel Cutting board (polyvinylchloride) | 2 log 4 log | 1.20–2.10 J/cm2 | NUV–vis 5 LED (395 nm); RT 4; 3, 12 or 23 cm | [169] |
Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Enteritidis L. monocytogenes | Polyvinylchloride (PVC) or acrylic surfaces | 1.90–2.19 log (PVC); 1.18–1.63 log (acrylic) 0.68–0.90 log (PVC); 0.21–0.42 log (acrylic) | 15–45 J/cm2 (PVC); 15–60 J/cm2 (acrylic) | Blue LED (405 nm; 110 mW/cm2) | [146] |
L. monocytogenes (planktonic or biofilm) | STC 3 or AC 6 contaminated with bacteria-laden salmon exudate | Planktonic: 1.9–2.4 log (STC 3); 2.4–2.8 log (AC 6) Biofilm: 0.7–1.6 log | 748.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 26 mW/cm2); 4, 15, 25 °C; 4.5 cm | [163] |
Bacteria | Food Matrix | Reduction (CFU/mL or CFU/g) | Light Dosage | Light Source; Temperature; Distance β | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
E. coli | UHT skim milk |
4.69–5.27 log (405 nm); 4.11–5.04 log (433 nm); 3.41–4.64 log (460 nm) |
Approx. 250 J/cm2 (405 nm); 313 J/cm2 (433 nm); 376 J/cm2 (460 nm) α | Blue LED (405, 433 or 460 nm; 10 W); 5–15 °C; 30 mm | [174] |
S. aureus; E. coli; P. aeruginosa; S. Typhimurium; M. fortuitum | Whole milk | 5 log | 228.84–583.5 J/cm2 | Blue LED (413 nm; 100 mW/cm2); 1 mm | [171] |
P. fluorescens (spoilage bacteria) | Ricotta cheese | 3–5 log | 6.36 J/cm2 | Near UV–vis LED (395 nm; 16 mW/cm2); 6 cm | [176] |
L. monocytogenes
P. fluorescens (spoilage bacteria) | Sliced cheese (packaged) |
5.14 log (4 °C); 1.95 log (25 °C) 3.60 log (4 °C); 1.85 log (25 °C) |
604.8 J/cm2 (4 °C); 172.8 J/cm2 (25 °C) |
Blue LED (460–470 nm; 1 mW/cm2); 4 or 25 °C; 10 mm | [165] |
S. enterica (Gaminara, Montevideo, Newport, Typhimurium and Saintpaul) | Orange juice | 2–5 log | 4500 J/cm2 |
Blue LED (460 nm; 92, 147.7 or 254.7 mW/cm2); 4, 12 or 20 °C | [175] |
Bacteria | Food Matrix | Reduction (CFU, CFU/mL or CFU/g) | Light Dosage | Light Source; Temperature; Distance; Photosensitizer β | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
L. monocytogenes | Basil | 1.6 log | 9 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 10 mW/cm2); RT 1; 6 cm; chlorophyllin (1.5 × 10−4 M) | [186] |
E. coli | Grape | 2.4 log | 36.3 J/cm2 | Blue LED (465–470 nm; 4.5–30.2 mW/cm2); RT 1; 19 cm; curcumin (1.6 × 10−3 M) | [103] |
L. monocytogenes
Salmonella spp. | Cantaloupe rinds |
At 405 nm: 2.4–2.9 log (no CHL); 2.8–3 log (CHL) At 460 nm: 2.7 log (no CHL); 2.2–2.3 log (CHL) At 405 nm: 2.3 (no CHL); 2.9 (CHL) At 460 nm: 1.1 log | 1210 J/cm2 (405 nm); 5360 J (460 nm) | Blue LED (405 or 460 nm; 7 or 31 mW/cm2); 4 or 20 °C; CHL2 (100 µM) | [104] |
Salmonella spp. | Fresh-cut papaya | 1–1.2 log (4 °C); 0.3–1.3 log (10 °C); 0.8–1.6 log (20 °C) | 900–1700 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm); 4, 10 or 20 °C; 2.3 or 4.5 cm | [116] |
Mesophilic bacteria B. cereus L. monocytogenes | Cherry tomatoes |
2.4 log 1.5 log 1.6 log | 3–9 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 10 mW/cm2); RT 1; 6 cm NCCHL 3 (1.5 × 10−4 M) | [181] |
S. Typhimurium | Strawberries | 2.2. log | 38 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 10–11 mW/cm2); 37 °C; 3.5 or 6 cm; CHL-CHN 4 | [180] |
S. Typhimurium | Cucumber peels | Approx. 3.9 log | 18 J/cm2 | Supra-luminous diode (SLD; 464 nm; 16.6 mW/cm2) | [187] |
E. coli
O157:H7 E. coli K-12 S. Enteritidis non-pathogenic S. Typhimurium | Almond kernel |
1.43–2.44 log 1.64–1.84 log 0.55–0.70 log 0.64–0.96 log | 2000 J § | Blue LED (405 nm; 3.4 W); RT 1; 7 cm | [185] |
S. aureus | Cucumber Pepper (green, red or yellow) |
2.6 log 2.5 log | 33.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (435 nm; 9.4 mW/cm2); RT 1; PVP-C 5 (50 or 100 µM) | [178] |
E. coli | Cucumber Tomatoes Lettuce |
3 log (10 µM); 4 log (50 µM); 4.5 log (100 µM) Approx. 3 log (10 µM); 6 log (50 µM); 3 log (100 µM) Approx. 3 log (10 µM); 7 log (50 µM); 6 log (100 µM) | 33.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (435 nm; 9.4 mW/cm2);15 cm; cationic curcumin derivative (10, 50 or 100 µM) | [177] |
E. coli |
Fenugreek seeds
Mung beans Mung bean germling |
Approx. 3 log (10 µM); 5 log (50 µM); 4.5 log (100 µM) Approx. 2.5 log (10 µM); 2 log (50 µM); 3.5 log (100 µM) Approx. 0.5 log (10 µM); 1 log (50 µM); 0.5 log (100 µM) | 33.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (435 nm; 9.4 mW/cm2);15 cm; cationic curcumin derivative (10, 50 or 100 µM) | [177] |
Salmonella spp. | Fresh-cut pineapple | 0.61–1.72 log | Approx. 8000 J/cm2 | Blue LED (460 nm; 92–257 mW/cm2); 7, 16 or 25 °C; 2.5–4.5 cm | [184] |
E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp. or L. monocytogenes | Fresh-cut mangoes | 1–1.6 log | 1700–3500 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 20 mW/cm2); 4, 10 or 20 °C; 4.5 cm | [182] |
L. monocytogenes
Mesophilic bacteria Yeasts and microfungi | Strawberries |
1.8 log 1.7 log 0.87 log | 14.4 J/cm2 | Blue LED (400 nm; 12 mW/cm2); NCCHL 3 (1 mM) | [188] |
E. coli | Fresh-cut Fuji apple | 0.95 log | 152 J/cm2 | Blue LED (420 nm; 298 mW/cm2); 4 cm; curcumin (2 µM) | [183] |
Bacteria | Food Matrix | Reduction (CFU, CFU/mL or CFU/g) | Light Dosage | Light Source; Temperature; Distance; Photosensitizer β | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Uropathogenic E. coli; E. coli O157:H7; Salmonella spp.; L. monocytogenes; S. aureus | Chicken skin | 0.19–0.40 log | 180 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 150 or 300 mW/cm2); 10 °C; 23 cm | [161] |
C. jejuni
C. coli | Chicken skin |
1.7 log 2.1 log |
184 J/cm2 185.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 151, 226 or 306 mW/cm2); 10 °C; 20.3 cm | [162] |
L. monocytogenes | Hot dog | <1 log | 120 J/cm2 | SLD (405 or 464 nm); 3–5 mm | [192] |
E. coli | Hot dog | 2.43 log | 100 J/cm2 | SLD (405 nm; 83.3 mW/cm2); 3–5 mm | [187] |
L. monocytogenes
Salmonella spp. | Fresh salmon |
0.4 log (4 °C); 0.3 log (12 °C) 0.5 log (4 °C); 0.4 log (12 °C) | 460.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 16 mW/cm2); 4 or 12 °C; 7.9 cm | [190] |
C. jejuni |
Skinless chicken fillet Chicken skin |
1.43–2.62 log Approx. 6.7 log (3 cm); 1 log (12 cm); 0.7 log (23 cm) |
1.20–2.10 J/cm2 9 J/cm2 (3 cm); 4.23 J/cm2 (12 cm); 1.20 J/cm2 (23 cm) | NUV–vis 1 LED (395 nm); RT 2; 3, 12 or 23 cm | [169] |
L. monocytogenes | Smoked salmon fillets | 0.7–1.2 log | 2400 J/cm2 | Blue LED (460 nm; 15, 31 or 58 mW/cm2); 4 or 12 °C; 5.4–9 cm; riboflavin (25, 50 or 100 µM) | [191] |
S. aureus | Chicken meat (with skin) | 1.7 log | 33.8 J/cm2 | Blue LED (435 nm; 9.4 mW/cm2); RT 2; curcumin (50 or 100 µM) | [178] |
S. Enteritidis | Cooked chicken | 0.8–0.9 log | 1.58–3.80 J/cm2 | Blue LED (405 nm; 22 mW/cm2); 4 °C; 4 cm | [189] |
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Hadi, J.; Wu, S.; Brightwell, G. Antimicrobial Blue Light versus Pathogenic Bacteria: Mechanism, Application in the Food Industry, Hurdle Technologies and Potential Resistance. Foods 2020, 9, 1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121895
Hadi J, Wu S, Brightwell G. Antimicrobial Blue Light versus Pathogenic Bacteria: Mechanism, Application in the Food Industry, Hurdle Technologies and Potential Resistance. Foods. 2020; 9(12):1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121895
Chicago/Turabian StyleHadi, Joshua, Shuyan Wu, and Gale Brightwell. 2020. "Antimicrobial Blue Light versus Pathogenic Bacteria: Mechanism, Application in the Food Industry, Hurdle Technologies and Potential Resistance" Foods 9, no. 12: 1895. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9121895