Supplementation of Enriched Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and CLA Cheese on High Fat Diet: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Fat Profile
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Experimental Design
2.2. Lipid Analysis
2.3. Gene Expression Analysis
2.4. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Effect of ENR Cheese Supplementation on Lipid Fraction Composition
3.1.1. Liver
3.1.2. Brain
3.1.3. Skeletal Muscle
3.1.4. Adipose Tissue
3.2. Effect of Diet on Gene Expression
3.2.1. Liver
3.2.2. Brain
3.2.3. Skeletal Muscle
3.2.4. Adipose Tissue
4. Discussion
4.1. Lipid Profile
4.2. Gene Expression
4.2.1. Skeletal Muscle
4.2.2. Liver
4.2.3. Brain
4.2.4. Adipose Tissue
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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CON | CHE | ENR | |
---|---|---|---|
Protein (%) | 14.30 | 21.81 | 19.95 |
Lipid (%) | 4.00 | 23.07 | 21.89 |
Carbohydrates (%) | 48.00 | 19.38 | 19.38 |
Ash (%) | 4.70 | 3.54 | 2.77 |
Energy (cal/g) | 278.23 | 377.62 | 359.02 |
C16:0 | 0.50 | 3.03 | 2.41 |
C18:0 | 0.10 | 1.49 | 1.49 |
C18:1c9 | 0.70 | 2.85 | 3.17 |
C18:1c9c12 | 2.00 | 1.10 | 1.11 |
C18:2c9t11 | 0.00 | 0.13 | 0.73 |
C18:1c9c12c15 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.33 |
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Initial body weight (g) | 26.00 | 25.00 | 28.00 | 1.50 | 0.450 |
Final body weight (g) | 26.50 B | 26.00 B | 32.00 A | 1.45 | 0.009 |
Total Cholesterol (mg/dL) | 78.00 B | 100.00 A | 78.00 A | 3.27 | <0.001 |
Cholesterol HDL (mg/dL) | 25.50 C | 72.00 A | 40.00 B | 2.50 | <0.001 |
Cholesterol LDL (mg/dL) | 25.00 A | 15.00 B | 12.50 B | 2.00 | 0.004 |
Cardiovascular risk (Total Chol./Chol. HDL) | 2.80 A | 1.40 B | 1.50 B | 0.10 | 0.032 |
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Lipids (g/100 g of liver) | 9.47 | 8.20 | 8.26 | 0.98 | 0.762 |
Phospholipids (g/100 g TL) | 11.12 | 5.59 | 8.40 | 2.75 | 0.237 |
Triglycerides (g/100 g TL) | 50.47 | 55.56 | 49.99 | 4.15 | 0.321 |
Free Fatty Acids (g/100 g TL) | 37.70 | 38.09 | 40.73 | 4.93 | 0.550 |
Free Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 193.01 a | 94.88 b | 109.88 b | 37.37 | 0.025 |
Esterified Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 4.38 b | 4.50 b | 28.28 a | 0.68 | <0.001 |
Saturated Fatty Acids | 23.19 B | 30.28 A | 30.38 A | 1.62 | <0.001 |
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids | 41.99 C | 48.26 B | 55.05 A | 1.75 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids | 33.36 A | 13.14 B | 14.89 B | 1.20 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-6 | 31.79 A | 10.73 B | 10.02 B | 1.07 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-3 | 1.20 | 0.89 | 1.03 | 0.40 | 0.483 |
n-6/n-3 | 26.53 A | 12.12 B | 9.75 C | 0.33 | 0.005 |
Conjugated Linoleic Acid | 0.04 C | 1.22 B | 3.40 A | 0.12 | <0.001 |
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Lipids (g/100 g of brain) | 8.88 | 10.65 | 11.33 | 1.28 | 0.156 |
Phospholipids (g/100 g TL) | 63.27 | 62.87 | 70.14 | 3.11 | 0.347 |
Triglycerides (g/100 g TL) | 25.37 | 25.95 | 22.64 | 3.23 | 0.537 |
Free Fatty Acids (g/100 g TL) | 10.30 | 10.65 | 6.81 | 2.04 | 0.103 |
Free Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 897.78 | 720.15 | 1217.02 | 258.95 | 0.201 |
Esterified Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | - | - | - | - | NE |
Saturated Fatty Acids | 43.63 | 50.33 | 44.32 | 3.21 | 0.503 |
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids | 28.47 | 30.39 | 27.76 | 2.06 | 0.303 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids | 17.96 | 20.39 | 20.19 | 1.96 | 0.203 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-6 | 13.64 | 13.27 | 13.22 | 1.21 | 0.364 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-3 | 4.24 | 6.54 | 6.60 | 1.16 | 0.540 |
n-6/n-3 | 3.52 | 2.27 | 2.18 | 0.45 | 0.222 |
Conjugated Linoleic Acid | 0.40 | 1.05 | 1.07 | 0.33 | 0.401 |
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Lipids (g/100 g of muscle) | 19.25 | 26.84 | 17.15 | 4.73 | 0.252 |
Phospholipids (g/100 g TL) | 11.25 b | 9.72 b | 20.32 a | 3.36 | 0.013 |
Triglycerides (g/100 g TL) | 87.58 a | 88.11 a | 75.55 b | 3.37 | 0.011 |
Free Fatty Acids (g/100 g TL) | 0.45 b | 3.75 a | 3.30 a | 1.37 | 0.033 |
Free Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 15.60 A | 7.84 B | 7.53 B | 1.36 | <0.001 |
Esterified Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 2.50 | 4.73 | 3.05 | 1.22 | 0.456 |
Saturated Fatty Acids | 41.19 C | 63.52 A | 55.46 B | 3.15 | 0.006 |
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids | 38.27 A | 26.03 C | 29.75 B | 1.35 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids | 19.96 a | 11.48 b | 17.35 a | 2,22 | 0.019 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-6 | 18.39 a | 9.47 c | 11.48 b | 1,39 | 0.003 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-3 | 1.60 c | 1.99 b | 5.34 a | 1.18 | 0.016 |
n-6/n-3 | 11.69 A | 5.22 B | 2.78 C | 1.03 | <0.001 |
Conjugated Linoleic Acid | 0.07 C | 0.42 B | 1.37 A | 0.09 | <0.001 |
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total Lipids (g/100 g of ad. tissue) | 64.17 | 51.62 | 57.76 | 4.10 | 0.175 |
Phospholipids (g/100 g TL) | 1.11 | 1.12 | 1.02 | 0.25 | 0.641 |
Triglycerides (g/100 g TL) | 95.03 | 95.03 | 95.00 | 0.23 | 0.953 |
Free Fatty Acids (g/100 g TL) | 2.27 | 1.61 | 1.81 | 0.27 | 0.611 |
Free Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 5.60 | 7.84 | 7.53 | 1.36 | 0.584 |
Esterified Cholesterol (mg/100 g TL) | 2.50 | 4.73 | 3.05 | 1.22 | 0.430 |
Saturated Fatty Acids | 48.92 B | 55.16 A | 53.08 A | 1.45 | <0.001 |
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids | 27.91 B | 34.54 A | 36.35 A | 0.58 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids | 22.17 A | 9.30 B | 9.57 B | 0.61 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-6 | 21.14 A | 7.67 B | 6.57 B | 0.56 | <0.001 |
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids n-3 | 0.78 | 0.62 | 0.61 | 0.07 | 0.766 |
n-6/n-3 | 27.10 A | 12.17 B | 10.77 B | 0.65 | <0.001 |
Conjugated Fatty Acids | 0.02 C | 0.89 B | 2.31 A | 0.09 | <0.001 |
LIVER | BRAIN | SKELETAL MUSCLE | ADIPOSE TISSUE | |||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | CON | CHE | ENR | SEM | p-Value | |
Lipid metabolism | ||||||||||||||||||||
PLIN1 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.55 | 0.67 | 0.32 | 0.11 | 0.572 |
PLIN2 | 1.27 a | 0.40 b | 0.57 b | 0.20 | 0.002 | 1.13 A | 1.13 A | 0.59 B | 0.1 | 0.003 | 1.1 | 0.82 | 0.83 | 0.12 | 0.123 | 1.29 | 0.87 | 0.75 | 0.17 | 0.975 |
PLIN3 | 1.29 a | 1.41 a | 0.75 b | 0.15 | 0.024 | 1.14 | 1.33 | 0.65 | 0.2 | 0.435 | 0.93 a | 0.45 b | 0.75 a | 0.1 | 0.045 | - | - | - | - | NE |
PLIN4 | 1.09 c | 12.34 b | 18.67 a | 2.81 | 0.008 | 2.96 | 2.55 | 2.45 | 0.75 | 0.655 | 1.21 A | 0.49 B | 0.43 B | 0.11 | 0.009 | 1.10 A | 0.37 B | 0.21 B | 0.09 | <0.001 |
PLIN5 | 0.59 b | 0.36 b | 1.08 a | 0.12 | 0.005 | 2.46 | 1.39 | 1.89 | 0.61 | 0.699 | 0.78 A | 0.22 B | 0.20 B | 0.08 | <0.001 | - | - | - | - | NE |
SREBP1 | 2.25 b | 3.38 a | 1.26 c | 0.43 | 0.025 | 1.20 A | 0.57 C | 0.89 B | 0.08 | 0.007 | 0.69 | 1.16 | 0.88 | 0.17 | 0.968 | 1.23 b | 5.39 a | 2.46 b | 0.87 | 0.029 |
ACACA | 1.38 a | 0.74 b | 0.76 b | 0.16 | 0.037 | 1.52 | 1.31 | 1.03 | 0.24 | 0.213 | 0.78 A | 0.74 A | 0.29 B | 0.09 | 0.004 | 2.51 | 1.94 | 2.94 | 0.5 | 0.144 |
ACACB | 1.73 A | 0.37 B | 0.55 B | 0.23 | <0.001 | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.76 | 0.65 | 0.70 | 0.10 | 0.650 | 1.50 A | 0.42 B | 0.56 B | 0.13 | 0.002 |
FASN | 1.08 A | 0.24 B | 0.09 C | 0.06 | <0.001 | 1.54 b | 1.38 b | 3.54 a | 0.43 | 0.034 | 0.84 | 0.91 | 0.91 | 0.08 | 0.411 | 1.40 C | 6.56 B | 16.65 A | 0.9 | <0.001 |
SCD | 1.09 A | 0.37 C | 0.65 B | 0.07 | <0.001 | 0.92 a | 1.13 a | 0.34 b | 0.15 | 0.021 | 1.69 A | 0.44 B | 0.39 B | 0.2 | 0.004 | 1.1 | 0.86 | 0.97 | 0.18 | 0.167 |
GPAM | 1.14 A | 1.31 | 1.59 | 0.29 | 0.419 | 1.50 | 1.21 | 1.07 | 0.21 | 0.517 | 1.50 | 1.21 | 1.07 | 0.21 | 0.517 | 2.07 A | 0.33 B | 0.33 B | 0.23 | 0.003 |
AGPAT2 | 1.48 | 0.93 | 0.99 | 0.31 | 0.839 | 1.43 | 1.62 | 2.31 | 0.54 | 0.321 | 0.86 | 0.93 | 1.05 | 0.2 | 0.635 | 2.13 | 4.68 | 2.73 | 1.00 | 0.383 |
DGAT1 | 0.84 | 1.00 | 0.78 | 0.16 | 0.408 | 1.61 A | 1.01 B | 0.33 C | 0.16 | <0.001 | 0.63 a | 0.63 a | 0.34 b | 0.11 | 0.034 | 0.99 | 1.10 | 0.91 | 0.21 | 0.901 |
DGAT2 | 1.14 | 1.49 | 1.56 | 0.26 | 0.496 | 1.17 A | 0.62 B | 0.32 B | 0.15 | 0.007 | 0.95 A | 0.30 B | 0.45 B | 0.06 | <0.001 | 2.36 B | 6.92 A | 0.94 B | 0.88 | 0.002 |
LPIN1 | 2.10 c | 10.17 b | 22.27 a | 3.78 | 0.021 | 1.13 a | 0.96 a | 0.43 b | 0.17 | 0.016 | 1.13 A | 0.65 B | 1.36 A | 0.11 | 0.006 | 1.83 A | 0.56 B | 0.48 B | 0.13 | <0.001 |
ELOVL2 | 1.16 | 0.75 | 1.18 | 0.2 | 0.658 | 1.62 a | 1.50 a | 0.33 b | 0.32 | 0.020 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE |
ACLY | 1.63 A | 0.58 B | 0.24 C | 0.11 | <0.001 | 1.11 a | 0.96 a | 0.63 b | 0.12 | 0.016 | 0.28 | 0.26 | 0.13 | 0.06 | 0.863 | 1.63 B | 3.64 A | 2.27 B | 0.21 | <0.001 |
ETNK1 | 0.80 | 0.68 | 0.61 | 0.08 | 0.881 | 1.48 A | 0.59 B | 0.51 B | 0.15 | 0.008 | 0.95 A | 0.43 B | 0.31 B | 0.06 | <0.001 | 2.58 | 2.48 | 1.26 | 0.37 | 0.688 |
PCYT2 | 1.00 A | 0.83 B | 0.34 C | 0.07 | <0.001 | 1.10 A | 0.67 B | 0.32 C | 0.1 | 0.007 | 1.28 B | 2.31 A | 1.15 B | 0.17 | 0.001 | 1.49 | 2.7 | 2.85 | 0.43 | 0.975 |
CEPT-1 | 0.57 | 0.35 | 0.54 | 0.09 | 0.754 | 1.40 | 1.44 | 1.35 | 0.35 | 0.445 | 0.84 A | 1.06 A | 0.31 B | 0.09 | <0.001 | 1.59 | 1.51 | 1.06 | 0.2 | 0.916 |
PISD | 0.98 b | 1.03 b | 1.56 b | 0.13 | 0.035 | 1.36 | 1.64 | 1.54 | 0.23 | 0.644 | 0.79 a | 0.45 b | 0.76 a | 0.09 | 0.045 | 2.77 | 1.03 | 1.32 | 0.57 | 0.732 |
CERK | 1.71 | 1.63 | 1.17 | 0.32 | 0.761 | 1.23 | 0.99 | 0.6 | 0.14 | 0.029 | 0.82 A | 0.41 B | 0.25 B | 0.06 | 0.002 | 1.94 A | 1.15 B | 0.67 C | 0.14 | 0.001 |
CERS6 | 2.13 | 1.88 | 2.54 | 0.52 | 0.384 | 1.37 | 0.91 | 1.14 | 0.23 | 0.714 | - | - | - | - | NE | 2.02 | 1.60 | 1.12 | 0.21 | 0.202 |
PCK1 | 0.92 b | 0.66 c | 1.29 a | 0.17 | 0.029 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.92 A | 0.22 B | 0.16 B | 0.1 | 0.002 |
PRKAA1 | 0.76 b | 1.10 a | 0.82 b | 0.05 | 0.006 | 1.38 | 0.91 | 1.46 | 0.24 | 0.816 | 0.44 | 0.40 | 0.41 | 0.05 | 0.444 | 2.67 a | 1.29 b | 0.98 b | 0.32 | 0.027 |
ATGL | 1.33 | 1.78 | 1.65 | 0.27 | 0.385 | 1.78 | 1.78 | 1.5 | 0.35 | 0.885 | 0.79 | 0.43 | 0.58 | 0.11 | 0.738 | 1.61 A | 0.24 B | 0.26 B | 0.15 | <0.001 |
CPT1 b | 1.03 b | 1.26 b | 2.45 a | 0.41 | 0.036 | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.94 | 0.68 | 0.99 | 0.10 | 0.489 | 2.37 A | 1.97 A | 0.00 B | 0.6 | 0.007 |
LIPE | 1.58 | 2.44 | 1.93 | 0.28 | 0.843 | 1.54 | 1.32 | 0.91 | 0.28 | 0.421 | 0.45 | 0.42 | 0.31 | 0.07 | 0.521 | 1.86 | 0.94 | 0.91 | 0.31 | 0.641 |
Inflammation and cell cycle | ||||||||||||||||||||
PRKCQ | 0.52 A | 0.45 A | 0.28 A | 0.14 | 0.005 | 1.42 A | 1.11 B | 0.32 C | 0.14 | <0.001 | 0.98 A | 1.24 A | 0.36 B | 0.13 | 0.009 | - | - | - | - | NE |
NFATC2 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 1.11 B | 7.26 A | 2.46 B | 0.52 | <0.001 | 1.56 | 1.36 | 1.39 | 0.29 | 0.669 |
TRP53 | 1.12 a | 0.51 b | 0.24 c | 0.12 | 0.002 | 1.46 A | 0.77 B | 0.25 C | 0.15 | 0.006 | 1.18 b | 2.01 a | 1.13 b | 0.2 | 0.011 | 1.08 a | 1.12 a | 0.29 b | 0.18 | 0.012 |
P21 | 1.91 A | 1.59 A | 1.84 A | 0.27 | 0.194 | 1.05 | 0.88 | 0.9 | 0.16 | 0.589 | 0.71 A | 0.23 B | 0.28 B | 0.07 | 0.002 | 1.54 A | 0.29 B | 0.32 B | 0.14 | <0.001 |
FGF21 | 0.28 b | 0.08 c | 0.43 a | 0.1 | 0.024 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.82 A | 0.10 B | 0.15 B | 0.04 | <0.001 |
IL1 B | 1.11 A | 0.33 B | 0.41 B | 0.10 | <0.001 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.25 | 0.43 | 0.00 | 0.06 | 0.530 |
Mitochondrial metabolism | ||||||||||||||||||||
PGC1 A | 1.21 c | 1.90 b | 2.20 a | 0.18 | 0.002 | 1.36 | 0.96 | 1.62 | 0.23 | 0.662 | 1.36 | 0.96 | 1.62 | 0.23 | 0.662 | 3.15 | 2.33 | 2.05 | 0.28 | 0.535 |
OPA-1 | 0.77 c | 1.22 b | 1.60 a | 0.19 | 0.022 | 1.14 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.11 | 0.435 | 1.14 | 0.83 | 0.85 | 0.11 | 0.435 | 1.69 | 1.92 | 1.42 | 0.23 | 0.622 |
MFN1 | 0.83 a | 0.40 b | 0.35 b | 0.10 | 0.043 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 2.67 | 7.98 | 4.69 | 1.88 | 0.789 |
DRP1 | 1.16 | 0.95 | 0.84 | 0.12 | 0.654 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 1.99 | 2.26 | 1.94 | 0.26 | 0.964 |
UCP2 | 1.71 a | 0.74 c | 1.14 b | 0.26 | 0.014 | 1.38 A | 0.55 B | 0.38 B | 0.13 | <0.001 | 1.38 A | 0.55 B | 0.38 B | 0.13 | <0.001 | 1.80 A | 0.60 B | 0.69 B | 0.15 | <0.001 |
UCP3 | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 1.27 | 0.82 | 1.00 | 0.15 | 0.720 |
NDUFS3 | 0.97 A | 0.99 | 1.71 | 0.36 | 0.791 | 0.99 | 1.45 | 1.24 | 0.18 | 0.954 | 0.99 | 1.45 | 1.24 | 0.18 | 0.954 | 1.51 A | 1.06 A | 0.34 B | 0.17 | 0.001 |
UQCR10 | 0.67 A | 0.55 | 0.66 | 0.13 | 0.756 | 2.09 a | 1.10 b | 1.03 b | 0.27 | 0.013 | 2.09 a | 1.10 b | 1.03 b | 0.27 | 0.019 | 3.72 A | 2.31 B | 0.17 C | 0.55 | <0.001 |
COX10 | 1.77 a | 1.34 b | 1.04 c | 0.16 | 0.034 | 1.54 | 1.78 | 1.14 | 0.31 | 0.484 | 1.54 | 1.78 | 1.14 | 0.31 | 0.484 | 1.74 A | 1.79 A | 0.81 B | 0.15 | 0.007 |
ATP5 G1 | 0.81 a | 0.68 b | 0.46 c | 0.10 | 0.016 | 1.56 a | 0.72 b | 0.92 b | 0.24 | 0.022 | 1.56 a | 0.72 b | 0.92 b | 0.24 | 0.026 | 2.26 | 4.67 | 3.75 | 0.87 | 0.675 |
KLOTOB | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | - | - | - | - | NE | 0.96 A | 0.09 B | 0.19 B | 0.08 | <0.001 |
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Tognocchi, M.; Conte, M.; Testai, L.; Martucci, M.; Serra, A.; Salvioli, S.; Calderone, V.; Mele, M.; Conte, G. Supplementation of Enriched Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and CLA Cheese on High Fat Diet: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Fat Profile. Foods 2022, 11, 398. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030398
Tognocchi M, Conte M, Testai L, Martucci M, Serra A, Salvioli S, Calderone V, Mele M, Conte G. Supplementation of Enriched Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and CLA Cheese on High Fat Diet: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Fat Profile. Foods. 2022; 11(3):398. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030398
Chicago/Turabian StyleTognocchi, Monica, Maria Conte, Lara Testai, Morena Martucci, Andrea Serra, Stefano Salvioli, Vincenzo Calderone, Marcello Mele, and Giuseppe Conte. 2022. "Supplementation of Enriched Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and CLA Cheese on High Fat Diet: Effects on Lipid Metabolism and Fat Profile" Foods 11, no. 3: 398. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11030398